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Volume 38, Issue 2 (2023)
GeoRes 2023, 38(2): 255-263 |
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Received: 2023/03/15 | Accepted: 2023/05/13 | Published: 2023/07/16
Received: 2023/03/15 | Accepted: 2023/05/13 | Published: 2023/07/16
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Shirazi R, Khammari M, Noruzi A. Spatial-Environmental Analysis of the Iron Age Settlements in Highland Zagros: Laran County, Chahar Mahal and Bakhtiari. GeoRes 2023; 38 (2) :255-263
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1- Department of Archaeology, Faculty of Literature and Humanities, University of Sistan and Baluchestan, Zahedan, Iran
2- Southeast Regional Museum, General Directorate of Cultural Heritage of Sistan and Baluchistan, Zahedan, Iran
3- Iranian Center for Archaeological Research (ICAR), Research Institute for Cultural Heritage and Tourism, Tehran, Iran
2- Southeast Regional Museum, General Directorate of Cultural Heritage of Sistan and Baluchistan, Zahedan, Iran
3- Iranian Center for Archaeological Research (ICAR), Research Institute for Cultural Heritage and Tourism, Tehran, Iran
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Introduction
The study of the role of geographical factors in the settlement patterns and development of human communities is one of the key approaches in modern archaeology. Various theories have been proposed by researchers to explain and analyze the distribution of human settlements, with a central emphasis on geographical and cultural factors in the formation, expansion, and distribution of these settlements. Although the cultural dimension of these factors has always been emphasized, the decisive role of environmental conditions cannot be ignored [Motarjem & Niknami, 2012]. When discussing ancient settlement patterns and their spatial distribution, the influence of the environment and cultural landscapes becomes even more pronounced. Differences in population density and natural environments have led to the emergence of specific settlement patterns during different periods [Mousavi Kouhpar et al., 2011]. Therefore, understanding the natural environment is crucial in examining ancient settlement selection, as humans adopted diverse lifestyles corresponding to various environmental conditions [Motarjem & Almasi, 2014].
One of the major potentials of the Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari region lies in its extensive rangelands and abundant seasonal rainfall, which have made it suitable for pastoral and nomadic livelihoods. In general, the western and southern parts of Iran and the central Zagros region are more favorable for animal husbandry than for agriculture [Stauffer, 1965]. Throughout history, these regions have hosted the largest number of nomadic and pastoral populations [Potts, 2014]. Understanding the livelihood patterns of people during the Iron Age in the high Zagros region is of fundamental importance. This study examines the role of environmental and cultural factors in shaping the human settlements of the Iron Age in Laran. It also aims to analyze the impact of environmental resources on settlement patterns and the mechanisms influencing the formation, expansion, continuity, and decline of settlements in this region. Furthermore, it investigates the spatial-environmental relationships and interactions among Iron Age settlements in the Laran district.
Although the Laran region represents one of the most significant intermediate cultural-geographical basins, it has only recently become the subject of systematic archaeological investigation. The limited number of archaeological activities in this area reflects the lack of attention to its evident cultural and environmental potential across different periods. Scientific archaeological studies in Laran began much later than in many other regions of Iran. Even the few preliminary surveys that have been conducted remained incomplete and were often discontinued at early stages. The absence of comprehensive research on the ancient settlement patterns of this area, particularly in Laran, and the insufficient understanding of its prehistoric cultures have constrained our knowledge of human communities from the Paleolithic period to the present.
Despite its remarkable environmental capabilities and unique geographical location, the Laran district remains largely unexplored in archaeological studies, especially regarding the prehistoric archaeology of the southern Zayandeh-Rud basin. Although a few sporadic investigations have been conducted, their reports and findings have rarely been published, and in many cases, not even presented. A review of the limited existing studies highlights the severe deficiency in archaeological research in this region and the lack of fundamental progress in this field. Only in recent years, through systematic surveys, have some insights been gained regarding the existence of prehistoric cultures in the area. However, despite these limited efforts, no study has yet been carried out with a spatial-environmental analytical approach, an important gap this research seeks to address.
Methodology
The Laran district, situated at an altitude of 2,036 meters above sea level and serving as a water source for the Zayandeh-Rud and Karun rivers, is part of Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari Province. It is bordered by Isfahan Province to the north, Shahr-e Kord to the east and south, Farsan County to the west, and Kouhrang County to the northwest . Owing to its high mountainous nature and location along the path of humid Mediterranean winds, the region receives an average annual precipitation of 560 millimeters [Soltani et al., 2010]. Topographically, the area consists of rolling hills with several intermountain plains oriented in a northwest–southeast direction. Although Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari covers only 1% of Iran’s total area, it contains more than 10% of the country’s water resources. Due to its rich natural endowments including water, fertile soil, and suitable vegetation, the region has been inhabited since ancient times and remains one of the principal routes of nomadic migration [Fisher, 1968].
The earliest systematic archaeological studies in Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari were initiated in 1974 by Alan Zagarell in regions such as Shahr-e Kord, Borujen, and Lordegan. In 1975, these investigations continued through surveys conducted in Lordegan, Gandoman, Boldaji, and Shahr-e Kord, during which significant ancient mounds, such as Qaleh Rostam and Tappeh Gerde Chelle-Gah in Lordegan County were excavated under the supervision of Hans Nissen and Alan Zagarell. Between 1977 and 1978, Zagarell conducted brief surveys in the Shahr-e Kord plain and carried out excavations at the Qaleh Goli mound in Lordegan [Zagarell, 1982; Zagarell, 1975].
The Laran district was first subjected to intensive archaeological survey in the autumn of 2009 (1388 AH) by Nowruzi [Nowruzi, 2010]. After the initial identification and delineation of archaeological sites based on texture, topographic structure, and the spatial distribution of cultural materials, the geographic coordinates of each site were recorded using GPS. Cultural materials were then randomly collected from surface deposits. The collected artifacts were subsequently typologically classified, categorized, and recorded in data tables.
From a total of 230 identified archaeological sites, 44 were attributed to the Iron Age based on the analysis of surface materials. Archaeological and statistical data from the study area were entered into ArcGIS Pro (version 29.0.10) and SPSS (version 16) for processing. These data were then analyzed in relation to the natural environmental characteristics of the region to identify spatial patterns and environmental determinants influencing settlement distribution.
Findings
The correlation between Iron Age sites in Laran and environmental factors was assessed using Pearson correlation analysis. This analysis produced correlation coefficients indicating the relationship between human settlement patterns and environmental parameters. Environmental factors including water resources, transportation routes, elevation, slope aspect, slope degree, and vegetation cover were treated as independent parameters, while the area of archaeological sites was considered the dependent parameter. In Pearson correlation, values range from -1 to +1, with values closer to +1 indicating stronger correlation and values near zero indicating weak or no correlation. This method was chosen based on the assumption of relative uniformity of environmental factors and human behaviors.
A total of 44 Iron Age sites were identified in Laran. Spatial-environmental analysis of these sites was conducted with respect to the following parameters:
Correlation of site area with distance to permanent water sources: The distance of sites from permanent water sources ranged from 100 to 3,213 meters, with 31 out of 44 sites located within 0–500 meters. Pearson’s correlation coefficient was +0.131, close to zero, indicating a weak and statistically insignificant relationship between site area and distance from water sources.
Correlation of site area with elevation: Sites were located at elevations between 2,125 and 2,589 meters above sea level, with 29 sites situated between 2,300 and 2,500 meters, indicating temporary settlements. Pearson’s correlation coefficient was -0.222, showing a weak inverse relationship, meaning that as elevation increased, site area tended to decrease slightly.
Correlation of site area with distance from transportation routes: Site areas varied between 300 and 60,000 square meters and were located 10 to 9,564 meters from transportation routes. About 30% of sites were located 1,000–2,000 meters from roads. Pearson’s correlation coefficient was +0.055, indicating a weak and negligible relationship, possibly due to the presence of minor paths or shortcuts that influenced site selection.
Correlation of site area with slope degree: Most sites were located on gentle slopes, with 89% on slopes under 10 degrees. Pearson’s correlation coefficient was -0.080, showing no meaningful correlation between site area and slope, possibly due to the seasonal nature of these sites and the limited importance of slope for the inhabitants.
Correlation of site area with slope aspect: Analysis in GIS revealed that the Pearson correlation between site area and slope aspect was -0.207, indicating a weak inverse relationship and showing no significant association between site size and slope orientation.
Cluster analysis of sites: Cluster analysis using the nearest neighbor method with Euclidean distance, considering site area as the dependent parameter and environmental factors as independent parameters, resulted in three clusters of settlement patterns.
Discussion
The results of the environmental findings indicate the limited importance of environmental factors in the selection of settlement locations during the Iron Age. As mentioned, this land is a mountainous region with cold climatic conditions and is topographically difficult to traverse. The location of sites along communication routes is due to the topographical conditions of the area. The only communication routes connecting this region to other areas pass through the gaps and passes between high mountains. These routes have been used historically and continue to serve as pathways for nomadic tribes [Khosrowzadeh & Habibi, 2015]. The positioning of Iron Age sites at elevations above 2000 meters, with various slopes and aspects, and at different distances from perennial water sources and communication routes, indicates minimal dependence on environmental resources [Hole, 2009; Von Folsach, 2004].
Seasonal precipitation in the highlands is considerably higher than in the plains, resulting in water resources flowing as springs, streams, and rivers, which in turn support rich vegetation cover. These three factors have been more important to human groups than other factors [Bahraminia et al., 2014]. The special geographical conditions of the Zagros region, the scarcity of arable lands, and the presence of pastures have made the region suitable for nomadic life [Khosrowzadeh & Habibi, 2015]; therefore, horizontal and vertical movement of pastoral nomads constitutes the main foundation of nomadic life, with livestock and pasture being key elements for the continuation of this lifestyle [Honeychurch & Makarewicz, 2016]. Zagarell refers to these sites as foothill settlements [Zagarell, 1989; Zagarell, 1982]. Considering the geographical and environmental characteristics of the highlands, a specific seasonal migration pattern is imposed on the nomads, especially in the vertical nomadism system, during summer and autumn [Redding, 2003; Alizadeh, 2010].
Nomadism in this region has existed since ancient times. Most settlement evidence from the Copper Stone Age in the Chogha Khur wetland area, in the Sakiabad archaeological site not far from this region, indicates temporary nomadic settlements. At this site, dry-stone architecture remains have been discovered that resemble modern nomadic huts [Shirazi et al., 2015; Heidari & Noruzi, 2020]. According to existing data, the Bronze Age in this region was very limited, with only six sites identified, which were weak in stratigraphy and likely indicate temporary or nomadic lifestyles [Noruzi, 2003].
The emergence of a powerful Elamite state in the mid-3rd millennium BCE further increased the importance of this land. The Elamites, for expanding eastward during the 2nd and 1st millennia BCE, required intermontane valleys and passes in the Bakhtiari region. It is likely that incoming tribes, later identified as Iranians, passed through this region to settle in southern lands near the Karun River.
The situation in the northern and southern parts of Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari differs fundamentally. For example, in the Kashan plain in the northwest of this region, evidence of sedentary communities is observed from the Neolithic until the end of the Bronze Age. Cemeteries in different periods show clear differences in burial traditions, partly attributed to the arrival of new tribes [Girhshman, 1937]. The ruling families of the Neo-Elamite state encountered new groups, i.e., the Persians, who gradually appeared in the current Fars region from the 8th century BCE and expanded their power to southwestern Iran by the 6th century BCE, compelling the Elamite state to interact with them. For instance, with the fall of the Shutrukid dynasty at the end of the Middle Elamite period and the beginning of the Neo-Elamite period, the state lost control over the western and southern mountainous regions, and the city of Anshan, always an Elamite city, went out of their control. The long-term presence of the Iranians, apparently spanning several centuries, likely influenced this power shift [Abdi, 2021]. During this period, the bond between the Elamites and ancient Persians may have deepened through friendship treaties and political marriages [Bartelmus, 2023]. It is noteworthy that in Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari, an Elamite inscription belonging to King Hutelutush Inshushinak of the Middle Elamite period (c. 1100 BCE) has been discovered, indicating Elamite presence in this part of the Iranian plateau.
The present study demonstrated that one of the limitations of research in Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari is the lack of archaeological and human geography data regarding different prehistoric and historic periods. In fact, the more diverse and extensive the data available, the more logical and comprehensive the conclusions that can be drawn. Therefore, it is recommended that future archaeological surveys in this region focus on subsistence economy strategies and how humans adapted to the harsh and cold environment, similar to how populations in the Iranian plateau’s tropical regions adapted to harsh and arid conditions.
Conclusion
The lack of correlation between environmental factors and the formation of human settlements is likely the result of a conscious choice of livelihood strategy by the inhabitants of the region. This indicates that temporary and nomadic settlements were established in locations where seasonal water resources and pastures were sufficient during favorable seasons to sustain this form of subsistence economy.
Acknowledgments: The raw data for this research were obtained from the archaeological surveys conducted in 2009 under the supervision of Ali Asghar Nowruzi, organized by the Cultural Heritage, Tourism, and Handicrafts Department of Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari Province and the Archaeological Research Institute of the Research Institute of Cultural Heritage and Tourism (RICHT). The authors express their gratitude to the University of Sistan and Baluchestan, whose facilities supported the completion of this study. The implementation of this project was officially authorized by the Archaeological Research Institute of RICHT, for which the authors are sincerely thankful. The authors also wish to thank Mr. Sina Jahani for reviewing the manuscript.
Ethical Permission: No ethical issues have been reported by the authors.
Conflict of Interest: No conflicts of interest have been declared by the authors.
Authors’ Contributions: Shirazi R (First Author), Introduction Writer/Methodologist/Statistical Analyst/Discussion Writer (50%); Khammari M (Second Author), Statistical Analyst (30%); Noruzi A (Third Author), Methodologist (20%).
Funding: The fieldwork expenses for this study were funded by the Cultural Heritage, Tourism, and Handicrafts Department of Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari Province.
The study of the role of geographical factors in the settlement patterns and development of human communities is one of the key approaches in modern archaeology. Various theories have been proposed by researchers to explain and analyze the distribution of human settlements, with a central emphasis on geographical and cultural factors in the formation, expansion, and distribution of these settlements. Although the cultural dimension of these factors has always been emphasized, the decisive role of environmental conditions cannot be ignored [Motarjem & Niknami, 2012]. When discussing ancient settlement patterns and their spatial distribution, the influence of the environment and cultural landscapes becomes even more pronounced. Differences in population density and natural environments have led to the emergence of specific settlement patterns during different periods [Mousavi Kouhpar et al., 2011]. Therefore, understanding the natural environment is crucial in examining ancient settlement selection, as humans adopted diverse lifestyles corresponding to various environmental conditions [Motarjem & Almasi, 2014].
One of the major potentials of the Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari region lies in its extensive rangelands and abundant seasonal rainfall, which have made it suitable for pastoral and nomadic livelihoods. In general, the western and southern parts of Iran and the central Zagros region are more favorable for animal husbandry than for agriculture [Stauffer, 1965]. Throughout history, these regions have hosted the largest number of nomadic and pastoral populations [Potts, 2014]. Understanding the livelihood patterns of people during the Iron Age in the high Zagros region is of fundamental importance. This study examines the role of environmental and cultural factors in shaping the human settlements of the Iron Age in Laran. It also aims to analyze the impact of environmental resources on settlement patterns and the mechanisms influencing the formation, expansion, continuity, and decline of settlements in this region. Furthermore, it investigates the spatial-environmental relationships and interactions among Iron Age settlements in the Laran district.
Although the Laran region represents one of the most significant intermediate cultural-geographical basins, it has only recently become the subject of systematic archaeological investigation. The limited number of archaeological activities in this area reflects the lack of attention to its evident cultural and environmental potential across different periods. Scientific archaeological studies in Laran began much later than in many other regions of Iran. Even the few preliminary surveys that have been conducted remained incomplete and were often discontinued at early stages. The absence of comprehensive research on the ancient settlement patterns of this area, particularly in Laran, and the insufficient understanding of its prehistoric cultures have constrained our knowledge of human communities from the Paleolithic period to the present.
Despite its remarkable environmental capabilities and unique geographical location, the Laran district remains largely unexplored in archaeological studies, especially regarding the prehistoric archaeology of the southern Zayandeh-Rud basin. Although a few sporadic investigations have been conducted, their reports and findings have rarely been published, and in many cases, not even presented. A review of the limited existing studies highlights the severe deficiency in archaeological research in this region and the lack of fundamental progress in this field. Only in recent years, through systematic surveys, have some insights been gained regarding the existence of prehistoric cultures in the area. However, despite these limited efforts, no study has yet been carried out with a spatial-environmental analytical approach, an important gap this research seeks to address.
Methodology
The Laran district, situated at an altitude of 2,036 meters above sea level and serving as a water source for the Zayandeh-Rud and Karun rivers, is part of Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari Province. It is bordered by Isfahan Province to the north, Shahr-e Kord to the east and south, Farsan County to the west, and Kouhrang County to the northwest . Owing to its high mountainous nature and location along the path of humid Mediterranean winds, the region receives an average annual precipitation of 560 millimeters [Soltani et al., 2010]. Topographically, the area consists of rolling hills with several intermountain plains oriented in a northwest–southeast direction. Although Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari covers only 1% of Iran’s total area, it contains more than 10% of the country’s water resources. Due to its rich natural endowments including water, fertile soil, and suitable vegetation, the region has been inhabited since ancient times and remains one of the principal routes of nomadic migration [Fisher, 1968].
The earliest systematic archaeological studies in Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari were initiated in 1974 by Alan Zagarell in regions such as Shahr-e Kord, Borujen, and Lordegan. In 1975, these investigations continued through surveys conducted in Lordegan, Gandoman, Boldaji, and Shahr-e Kord, during which significant ancient mounds, such as Qaleh Rostam and Tappeh Gerde Chelle-Gah in Lordegan County were excavated under the supervision of Hans Nissen and Alan Zagarell. Between 1977 and 1978, Zagarell conducted brief surveys in the Shahr-e Kord plain and carried out excavations at the Qaleh Goli mound in Lordegan [Zagarell, 1982; Zagarell, 1975].
The Laran district was first subjected to intensive archaeological survey in the autumn of 2009 (1388 AH) by Nowruzi [Nowruzi, 2010]. After the initial identification and delineation of archaeological sites based on texture, topographic structure, and the spatial distribution of cultural materials, the geographic coordinates of each site were recorded using GPS. Cultural materials were then randomly collected from surface deposits. The collected artifacts were subsequently typologically classified, categorized, and recorded in data tables.
From a total of 230 identified archaeological sites, 44 were attributed to the Iron Age based on the analysis of surface materials. Archaeological and statistical data from the study area were entered into ArcGIS Pro (version 29.0.10) and SPSS (version 16) for processing. These data were then analyzed in relation to the natural environmental characteristics of the region to identify spatial patterns and environmental determinants influencing settlement distribution.
Findings
The correlation between Iron Age sites in Laran and environmental factors was assessed using Pearson correlation analysis. This analysis produced correlation coefficients indicating the relationship between human settlement patterns and environmental parameters. Environmental factors including water resources, transportation routes, elevation, slope aspect, slope degree, and vegetation cover were treated as independent parameters, while the area of archaeological sites was considered the dependent parameter. In Pearson correlation, values range from -1 to +1, with values closer to +1 indicating stronger correlation and values near zero indicating weak or no correlation. This method was chosen based on the assumption of relative uniformity of environmental factors and human behaviors.
A total of 44 Iron Age sites were identified in Laran. Spatial-environmental analysis of these sites was conducted with respect to the following parameters:
Correlation of site area with distance to permanent water sources: The distance of sites from permanent water sources ranged from 100 to 3,213 meters, with 31 out of 44 sites located within 0–500 meters. Pearson’s correlation coefficient was +0.131, close to zero, indicating a weak and statistically insignificant relationship between site area and distance from water sources.
Correlation of site area with elevation: Sites were located at elevations between 2,125 and 2,589 meters above sea level, with 29 sites situated between 2,300 and 2,500 meters, indicating temporary settlements. Pearson’s correlation coefficient was -0.222, showing a weak inverse relationship, meaning that as elevation increased, site area tended to decrease slightly.
Correlation of site area with distance from transportation routes: Site areas varied between 300 and 60,000 square meters and were located 10 to 9,564 meters from transportation routes. About 30% of sites were located 1,000–2,000 meters from roads. Pearson’s correlation coefficient was +0.055, indicating a weak and negligible relationship, possibly due to the presence of minor paths or shortcuts that influenced site selection.
Correlation of site area with slope degree: Most sites were located on gentle slopes, with 89% on slopes under 10 degrees. Pearson’s correlation coefficient was -0.080, showing no meaningful correlation between site area and slope, possibly due to the seasonal nature of these sites and the limited importance of slope for the inhabitants.
Correlation of site area with slope aspect: Analysis in GIS revealed that the Pearson correlation between site area and slope aspect was -0.207, indicating a weak inverse relationship and showing no significant association between site size and slope orientation.
Cluster analysis of sites: Cluster analysis using the nearest neighbor method with Euclidean distance, considering site area as the dependent parameter and environmental factors as independent parameters, resulted in three clusters of settlement patterns.
- Settlement Pattern A: Comprised 41 sites, the largest cluster. Sites were located at elevations of 2,125–2,589 meters, 10–9,564 meters from transportation routes, 100–3,213 meters from water sources, and on slopes of 7–10%. Most sites were small, with only one site covering approximately 20,400 m²; the rest were under half a hectare.
- Settlement Pattern B: Included two sites at elevations of 2,225–2,251 meters, 10–2,783 meters from roads, 183–1,520 meters from water sources, and slopes of 2–10%. Site areas ranged from 34,000 to 39,000 m². The slope orientation was east and west, and the sites were on both irrigated and rainfed land. Due to the large area, low slope, and proximity to water, these sites likely represent agricultural settlements.
- Settlement Pattern C: Consisted of a single site (Khaki 4) at 2,357 meters elevation, 2,348 meters from roads, 580 meters from water, with an area of 60,000 m² and a slope of 2.20% facing north. Similar to Pattern B, this site’s very large area suggests it was a permanent settlement.
Discussion
The results of the environmental findings indicate the limited importance of environmental factors in the selection of settlement locations during the Iron Age. As mentioned, this land is a mountainous region with cold climatic conditions and is topographically difficult to traverse. The location of sites along communication routes is due to the topographical conditions of the area. The only communication routes connecting this region to other areas pass through the gaps and passes between high mountains. These routes have been used historically and continue to serve as pathways for nomadic tribes [Khosrowzadeh & Habibi, 2015]. The positioning of Iron Age sites at elevations above 2000 meters, with various slopes and aspects, and at different distances from perennial water sources and communication routes, indicates minimal dependence on environmental resources [Hole, 2009; Von Folsach, 2004].
Seasonal precipitation in the highlands is considerably higher than in the plains, resulting in water resources flowing as springs, streams, and rivers, which in turn support rich vegetation cover. These three factors have been more important to human groups than other factors [Bahraminia et al., 2014]. The special geographical conditions of the Zagros region, the scarcity of arable lands, and the presence of pastures have made the region suitable for nomadic life [Khosrowzadeh & Habibi, 2015]; therefore, horizontal and vertical movement of pastoral nomads constitutes the main foundation of nomadic life, with livestock and pasture being key elements for the continuation of this lifestyle [Honeychurch & Makarewicz, 2016]. Zagarell refers to these sites as foothill settlements [Zagarell, 1989; Zagarell, 1982]. Considering the geographical and environmental characteristics of the highlands, a specific seasonal migration pattern is imposed on the nomads, especially in the vertical nomadism system, during summer and autumn [Redding, 2003; Alizadeh, 2010].
Nomadism in this region has existed since ancient times. Most settlement evidence from the Copper Stone Age in the Chogha Khur wetland area, in the Sakiabad archaeological site not far from this region, indicates temporary nomadic settlements. At this site, dry-stone architecture remains have been discovered that resemble modern nomadic huts [Shirazi et al., 2015; Heidari & Noruzi, 2020]. According to existing data, the Bronze Age in this region was very limited, with only six sites identified, which were weak in stratigraphy and likely indicate temporary or nomadic lifestyles [Noruzi, 2003].
The emergence of a powerful Elamite state in the mid-3rd millennium BCE further increased the importance of this land. The Elamites, for expanding eastward during the 2nd and 1st millennia BCE, required intermontane valleys and passes in the Bakhtiari region. It is likely that incoming tribes, later identified as Iranians, passed through this region to settle in southern lands near the Karun River.
The situation in the northern and southern parts of Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari differs fundamentally. For example, in the Kashan plain in the northwest of this region, evidence of sedentary communities is observed from the Neolithic until the end of the Bronze Age. Cemeteries in different periods show clear differences in burial traditions, partly attributed to the arrival of new tribes [Girhshman, 1937]. The ruling families of the Neo-Elamite state encountered new groups, i.e., the Persians, who gradually appeared in the current Fars region from the 8th century BCE and expanded their power to southwestern Iran by the 6th century BCE, compelling the Elamite state to interact with them. For instance, with the fall of the Shutrukid dynasty at the end of the Middle Elamite period and the beginning of the Neo-Elamite period, the state lost control over the western and southern mountainous regions, and the city of Anshan, always an Elamite city, went out of their control. The long-term presence of the Iranians, apparently spanning several centuries, likely influenced this power shift [Abdi, 2021]. During this period, the bond between the Elamites and ancient Persians may have deepened through friendship treaties and political marriages [Bartelmus, 2023]. It is noteworthy that in Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari, an Elamite inscription belonging to King Hutelutush Inshushinak of the Middle Elamite period (c. 1100 BCE) has been discovered, indicating Elamite presence in this part of the Iranian plateau.
The present study demonstrated that one of the limitations of research in Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari is the lack of archaeological and human geography data regarding different prehistoric and historic periods. In fact, the more diverse and extensive the data available, the more logical and comprehensive the conclusions that can be drawn. Therefore, it is recommended that future archaeological surveys in this region focus on subsistence economy strategies and how humans adapted to the harsh and cold environment, similar to how populations in the Iranian plateau’s tropical regions adapted to harsh and arid conditions.
Conclusion
The lack of correlation between environmental factors and the formation of human settlements is likely the result of a conscious choice of livelihood strategy by the inhabitants of the region. This indicates that temporary and nomadic settlements were established in locations where seasonal water resources and pastures were sufficient during favorable seasons to sustain this form of subsistence economy.
Acknowledgments: The raw data for this research were obtained from the archaeological surveys conducted in 2009 under the supervision of Ali Asghar Nowruzi, organized by the Cultural Heritage, Tourism, and Handicrafts Department of Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari Province and the Archaeological Research Institute of the Research Institute of Cultural Heritage and Tourism (RICHT). The authors express their gratitude to the University of Sistan and Baluchestan, whose facilities supported the completion of this study. The implementation of this project was officially authorized by the Archaeological Research Institute of RICHT, for which the authors are sincerely thankful. The authors also wish to thank Mr. Sina Jahani for reviewing the manuscript.
Ethical Permission: No ethical issues have been reported by the authors.
Conflict of Interest: No conflicts of interest have been declared by the authors.
Authors’ Contributions: Shirazi R (First Author), Introduction Writer/Methodologist/Statistical Analyst/Discussion Writer (50%); Khammari M (Second Author), Statistical Analyst (30%); Noruzi A (Third Author), Methodologist (20%).
Funding: The fieldwork expenses for this study were funded by the Cultural Heritage, Tourism, and Handicrafts Department of Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari Province.
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