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Volume 38, Issue 2 (2023)
GeoRes 2023, 38(2): 265-273 |
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Received: 2023/02/28 | Accepted: 2023/05/6 | Published: 2023/07/2
Received: 2023/02/28 | Accepted: 2023/05/6 | Published: 2023/07/2
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Khorsandian A, Mahmoudi Kamel Abad M, Noghrekar A. The Role of Environmental Factors on the Sense of Spirituality in Iran's Mosques based on Grounded Theory (Scope of Study: Mosques of Yazd and Isfahan). GeoRes 2023; 38 (2) :265-273
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1- Departmnent of Architecture, Faculty of Architecture and Urban Planning, Isfahan Art University, Isfahan, Iran
2- Departmnent of Architecture, Faculty of Architecture and Urban Planning, Iran University of Science and Technology, Tehran, Iran
2- Departmnent of Architecture, Faculty of Architecture and Urban Planning, Iran University of Science and Technology, Tehran, Iran
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Introduction
Contemporary Iranian architecture is entangled in profound intellectual and semantic contradictions, resulting from its separation from the traditional foundations of the past and its failure to achieve a new, stable dwelling. It is widely acknowledged that traditional spaces were generally serene and meaningful, providing the possibility of tranquility, contemplation, and a return to human essence. According to many architectural scholars such as Nadimi, Naghizadeh, Noghrekar, and Mojtahedzadeh, transforming contemporary architecture into a spiritual form and attaining the true meaning of architecture can be the key to overcoming the current crisis [Naghizadeh, 2007; Nadimi, 1997; Raeesi & Noghrekar, 2016; Mojtahedzadeh & Namvar, 2011]. To restore meaning and value to contemporary architectural spaces, it is necessary to rediscover the spatial qualities and meaning-giving values inherent in Iranian architecture. One of the fundamental topics in understanding how worldview influences form is the concept of meaning and spirituality, meanings derived from the spiritual and immaterial world, which manifest in religious art through material forms such as space, volume, and structure, thereby conveying metaphysical values and concepts. Furthermore, meaning may also be examined through the lens of worship and as a reflection of devotion. It should be noted that numerous studies have addressed mosque architecture and its associated spiritual and theological concepts. However, most of these studies, conducted with a qualitative-descriptive approach, provide a general account of sacred symbolism in Islamic Iranian art rather than focusing specifically on architecture. Therefore, there is a pressing need for a systematic study based on well-defined qualitative research methodologies.
Spirituality plays a dual role within our emotional system: on one hand, it generates emotion; on the other, it regulates it by creating a meaning-oriented structure [Mahdi Nejad et al., 2019]. In essence, spiritual matters are those associated with the Creator, referring to divine knowledge (ma‘rifat), faith and belief in Him (tawhid), and adherence to divine commands (shari‘a) [Sahhaf, 2016]. Some studies indicate that without the spiritual dimension, other dimensions of human existence, biological, psychological, and social cannot function properly or reach their full potential; hence, the highest attainable level of quality of life remains unreachable [Mueller et al., 2001].
Muslim artists, through their awareness of spirituality, have consistently sought to depict sacredness and transcendence within the physical and material structure of mosques by employing dynamic and mysterious elements. Accordingly, their ultimate goal in creating mosque spaces has been to recreate a movement that reminds the observer of another, higher world [HoomaniRad & Tahbaz, 2014]. The sense of spirituality can also be viewed in connection with the sense of place, as both involve a dynamic relationship developed through attachment to, awareness of, satisfaction with, and commitment to a place [Kaltenborn, 1998].
Islamic architecture draws from profound concepts derived from the Qur’an, embodying deep divine spirituality. Mosques from various periods of Islamic Iran exemplify the manifestation of these concepts in art, serving throughout history as the stage for social, political, and cultural events. Therefore, it can be asserted that separating Islamic architecture, particularly mosque architecture, from wisdom and spirituality is impossible. From a sacred worldview perspective, everything possesses an inner, hidden meaning that complements its external form, constituting a qualitative aspect of its being [Ardalan & Bakhtiar, 2015]. Symbolism in Islamic Iranian architecture stems from this same spirituality, in which purity and mystical truth are embodied. Mystery and symbolism are the essential characteristics of sacred (spiritual) art [Sahhaf, 2016]. This indicates that the sacred essence of form in Islamic architecture finds its highest expression in the mosque. Religious art in Islam reaches its most sublime form through the creation of mosque architecture [Iman Talab & Gerami, 2012].
Scholars such as Burckhardt and Nasr, through profound studies on the mysteries of Islamic art and reinterpretations of the hidden wisdom within Islamic architecture, have elaborated on the spiritual roots embedded in Iranian architectural structures [Nasr, 2015; Burckhardt, 2009]. In more recent applied research, HoomaniRad and Tahbaz examined the effect of daylight on the formation of spirituality in contemporary mosque spaces, emphasizing factors that contribute to the sense of sacredness [HoomaniRad & Tahbaz, 2014]. Similarly, Sadeghi and colleagues, in their study of spiritual architecture, analyzed sacred symbolism and holy imagery in mosque research, articulating the sacred mysteries in Islamic Iranian mosque architecture through a qualitative approach grounded in the principles of art and spiritually guided behavior [Sadeghi Habib Abad et al., 2017]. In the quantitative domain, Mahdi Nejad and coauthors examined the relationship between physical, psychological, and semantic parameters and the sense of spiritual tranquility in various mosques, using quantitative methods [Mahdi Nejad et al., 2019]. They analyzed two sets of parameters, sensory (color, light, sound) and physical (form, geometry, patterns, materials), and concluded that the studied mosques exhibit a satisfactory level of spiritual calmness. These studies serve as valuable references for the data and coding of the present research.
The use of abstract symbols to represent values in art, particularly in Iranian architecture, demonstrates that Iranians have always been meaning-oriented. Therefore, there is no need to establish the existence of meaning-centeredness in Iranian architecture. The present article seeks to define the criteria for creating a sense of spirituality by examining mosques as the supreme examples of Islamic Iranian architecture. This endeavor has been conducted through the qualitative research method known as Grounded Theory.
Methodology
The present study is applied in purpose and qualitative in method. A review of various qualitative research approaches suggested the use of the Grounded Theory method. Accordingly, the systematic approach attributed to Corbin and Strauss was employed for data analysis [Corbin & Strauss, 2014]. This systematic approach involves the description and labeling of data during open coding, comparison and analysis during axial coding, and the identification of patterns and theoretical foundations during selective coding.
Given that Grounded Theory emphasizes conducting research in real-world settings while seeking to apply its findings in practical contexts, the study required the selection of case samples. These cases were chosen to analyze and theorize based on their physical and meta-physical paradigms [Mansoori et al., 2019]. Thus, the research data were collected from both specialized literature and documentary sources, as well as from field observations and detailed evaluations of three historical congregational mosques: The Jameh Mosque of Yazd, the Jameh Mosque of Isfahan, and the Shah (Abbasi) Mosque.
Since in-depth interviewing is one of the most important factors in qualitative research, the primary criterion for sample selection was the researcher’s accessibility to participants and the possibility of extended presence for conducting systematic and comprehensive interviews. Accordingly, within the qualitative framework of Grounded Theory, the selected mosques were chosen not only for accessibility but also because they represent outstanding examples of Islamic Iranian architecture from different historical periods. The researcher conducted extensive fieldwork and performed in-depth interviews with 35 experts and practitioners who had prolonged experience in these mosques. The interviews were carried out during the summer of 2022 (1401 SH) across 11 sessions: five sessions for the Jameh Mosque of Yazd in September, and six sessions for the Jameh and Shah Mosques of Isfahan in July and August of the same year.
Following the typical Grounded Theory procedure, field data from each mosque were collected until theoretical saturation was reached—around the 29th interview—but to ensure robustness, interviews continued up to the 35th session [Akbari et al., 2020]. Subsequently, theory construction was performed in three stages: open coding, axial coding, and selective coding. To clarify the conceptual dimensions, the categories were hierarchically organized, and causal relationships among them were analyzed. In the final stage, a grounded theory based on the collected data was developed.
The spiritual environmental quality of the selected mosques and the components that contribute to the sense of spirituality within them were examined through the interviews. The extracted data were analyzed using the constructivist grounded theory approach. To enhance the validity of the research, a systematic framework was adopted, and NVivo software was employed for coding, analyzing, and determining the frequency of extracted codes. This process led to the development of a theoretical model identifying the components and dimensions that shape the sense of spirituality in mosque architecture.
The study focused on three major congregational mosques—Yazd, Isfahan, and Abbasi (Shah) Mosques—each representing distinctive architectural and historical significance:
Findings
Based on the interviews conducted with 35 experts during the research process, a total of 225 initial codes were extracted. Through multiple reviews and iterative integration of similar codes, these were refined into 25 open codes, 11 axial codes, and finally 5 selective codes.
A. Open Coding
In the open coding phase, the goal was to conceptualize the collected data and phenomena. After labeling, the dimensions of each concept were identified. Each category contained general characteristics essential for understanding the full scope of its dimensions.
For instance, regarding urban factors, one participant, Mohammad Hasan, distinguished the Shah Mosque (Masjed-e Imam) from other mosques by saying:
“The mosque’s location beside the square spiritually prepares the visitor in stages. It feels as though with every few steps, you feel closer to God.”
The recurring theme of the mosque’s spatial relationship with Naqsh-e Jahan Square was reflected in codes such as visual sequence, legibility, invitation, and entrance hierarchy.
The role of light in environmental perception was another highly recurring theme. For example, Razieh noted:
“Whenever I visit, I spend a long time in Naqsh-e Jahan Square. I think the color of the Sheikh Lotfollah Mosque dome changes throughout the day—mostly pink and cream during the day, and orange or brick-red at sunset. Especially when both mosques are visible, the effect becomes even more striking.”
Light was directly mentioned 23 times as a factor in creating chiaroscuro (light and shadow) and 11 times indirectly in relation to color changes and brightness in specific zones.
Regarding proportions and scale, most participants emphasized the mosques’ capacity to evoke spirituality. Masoud remarked: “The grandeur of the main iwan of the Jameh Mosque of Yazd always makes me feel small before God. I’ve felt this in other mosques too, but it’s always stronger here.”
Arash added: “The most impressive sensation I get is under the large muqarnas. Despite its massive size—beyond normal proportions—it gives me peace.”
The combination of grandeur and symmetry was among the most frequently mentioned themes. While large-scale physical features were often noted, participants’ focus tended to shift toward the architectural details. Mahsa observed: “It seems the tilework in the Imam Mosque isn’t just decoration. Without it, the mosque wouldn’t feel so tranquil. I agree that these ornaments remind one of paradise. They make this place unique—without them, the rest of the architecture wouldn’t create such a profound sense of sacredness.”
This distinction between large-scale and small-scale architectural features was consistent across participants.
In the secondary open coding stage, the initially extracted concepts were categorized based on similarities. Each category was assigned a broader, more abstract label that encompassed the underlying concepts while maintaining close relevance to the data. In the third phase, the defining characteristics of each category were identified, forming the foundation for discovering inter-category relationships and for developing the emerging theory.
B. Axial Coding
The second stage of data analysis in Grounded Theory—axial coding—aims to identify and establish relationships among the categories generated during open coding. The core of this stage involves expanding and linking one of the major categories to others. Based on the findings derived from document analysis and in-depth interviews, 11 major components were identified in this stage.
Using the Corbin and Strauss paradigm model, these 11 core phenomena were recognized as key determinants in evoking spirituality within the studied congregational mosques:
To enhance precision and analytical reliability, data coding was conducted through two parallel processes—manual and software-based. The results of both were integrated to construct a conceptual model of theory development within the Grounded Theory framework.
C. Selective Coding
The selective coding phase represents the core stage of theory generation in Grounded Theory. Through this process, the central category and its systematic relationships with other categories were articulated into a coherent narrative. The naming and coding in this phase were based on conceptual interpretation and a majority consensus exceeding 50% of expert agreement.
Drawing upon theoretical foundations and memo-writing from earlier coding stages, the derived data were synthesized around the central category—identifying components influencing the creation of spirituality in traditional congregational mosques. The resulting theoretical framework, encompasses five selective codes:
Discussion
In comparing the findings of the present research with previous studies, the first major distinction lies in the absence of a pre-defined and categorized structure of qualitative factors influencing the experience of spirituality in mosque spaces, as explored through the Grounded Theory approach.
According to the results and their alignment with earlier related research, the components identified during axial and selective coding demonstrate a considerable level of consistency with the outcomes of previous scattered studies. However, this study distinguishes itself by its systematic classification of qualitative data based on the grounded theory method and by developing a coherent theoretical framework. The comparison also revealed that several findings—specifically, the selective codes—have been previously discussed in individual studies, and statements supporting them have been recorded.
Regarding the “spiritual presence of light and the creation of chiaroscuro,” Alborzi et al. argue that the interplay of light and shadow symbolizes a metaphoric guidance from darkness toward illumination. In Iranian Islamic architecture, light, beyond its functional role, possesses a representational and symbolic function [Alborzi et al., 2021]. Polarity or directionality in architectural art and spatial composition manifests through a focused orientation of vision, light, movement, and attention [Raeesi & Noghrekar, 2016]. Similar perspectives have been mentioned in the works of Bolkhari and Shafiei et al. [Bolkhari, 2014; Shafiei et al., 2014].
The concept of “unifying components within a meaningful whole” has also been discussed by Haqtalab and Karvan, Burckhardt, and Madadpour [Haqtalab & Karvan, 2011; Burckhardt, 2009; Madadpour, 2008]. According to Titus, all geometric forms in traditional architecture tend toward a central purpose, reflecting unity and divine oneness. He emphasizes that all designs inherently move toward one direction—symbolizing tawhid [Haqtalab & Karvan, 2011]. Consequently, the overall form and spatial arrangement of traditional religious architecture embody a cosmic meaning [Madadpour, 2008].
The interior ornamentations of mosques are constructed according to precise quantitative proportions that, in fact, reflect the meanings and truths of religion [Shekariniri, 2000]. This notion has been reiterated in the works of Ardalan and Bakhtiar, as well as Hillenbrand [Ardalan & Bakhtiar, 2015; Hillenbrand, 1985]. Hillenbrand maintains that the purpose of these decorations is to eliminate material distractions and replace them with intangible and spiritual realities [Hillenbrand, 1985].
The theme of “spatial openness and physical grandeur” has been similarly discussed in numerous studies. For instance, Ardalan and Bakhtiar noted that the domed chamber achieves unity through multiplicity, allowing the divine light to manifest delicately within the material world [Ardalan & Bakhtiar, 2015]. Kamrova’s findings also indicate that the use of vast spatial surfaces contributes to creating a tranquil atmosphere, offering worshippers the option to enter a cool, dimly lit, or dark prayer hall [Kamrova, 1996]. Therefore, the use of arabesque motifs and void spaces helps liberate physical matter from oppressive heaviness, granting the soul space to breathe and expand [Nasr, 2015].
The component “centripetal geometry and localized symmetry” has likewise been noted by Burckhardt and Pope [Burckhardt, 2009; Pope, 2004]. The application of proportion and geometry serves as a means for embodying symbolism and spiritual meaning, producing enduring architectural works inspired by the monotheistic worldview. Such an approach, in turn, can guide a meaning-oriented architect toward transcendence.
Suggestions
Based on the findings of this study, the following recommendations are proposed to enhance the sense of spirituality in mosque architecture:
Providing more precise and generalizable results requires examining a wider range of mosques across Iran’s diverse geographical and cultural contexts. The researchers’ limited access to other major congregational mosques (Jame Mosques) constituted the primary constraint of this study.
Conclusion
The findings of this research indicate that five key indicators—“unifying components within a meaningful whole,” “traditional ornamentation grounded in mystical understanding,” “spatial openness and architectural grandeur,” “spiritual presence of light and the creation of chiaroscuro,” and “centripetal geometry and localized symmetry”—are the main components contributing to the experience of spirituality in the studied mosques.
Acknowledgments: No acknowledgments have been reported by the authors.
Ethical Approval: The authors have adhered to the principles of academic ethics, including integrity, confidentiality, honesty, and related standards.
Conflict of Interest: No conflicts of interest have been declared by the authors.
Author Contributions: Khorsandian A (First Author), Principal Researcher (50%); Mahmoudi Kamel Abad M (Second Author), Assistant Researcher and Methodologist (30%); Noghrekar A (Third Author), Discussion Writer (20%)
Funding: This article is derived from the doctoral dissertation of the first author, titled “The Effects of Geometric Orders on the Spatial Configuration of Iranian Mosque Architecture,” supervised by the second and third authors at the University of Art, Isfahan, currently in progress.
Contemporary Iranian architecture is entangled in profound intellectual and semantic contradictions, resulting from its separation from the traditional foundations of the past and its failure to achieve a new, stable dwelling. It is widely acknowledged that traditional spaces were generally serene and meaningful, providing the possibility of tranquility, contemplation, and a return to human essence. According to many architectural scholars such as Nadimi, Naghizadeh, Noghrekar, and Mojtahedzadeh, transforming contemporary architecture into a spiritual form and attaining the true meaning of architecture can be the key to overcoming the current crisis [Naghizadeh, 2007; Nadimi, 1997; Raeesi & Noghrekar, 2016; Mojtahedzadeh & Namvar, 2011]. To restore meaning and value to contemporary architectural spaces, it is necessary to rediscover the spatial qualities and meaning-giving values inherent in Iranian architecture. One of the fundamental topics in understanding how worldview influences form is the concept of meaning and spirituality, meanings derived from the spiritual and immaterial world, which manifest in religious art through material forms such as space, volume, and structure, thereby conveying metaphysical values and concepts. Furthermore, meaning may also be examined through the lens of worship and as a reflection of devotion. It should be noted that numerous studies have addressed mosque architecture and its associated spiritual and theological concepts. However, most of these studies, conducted with a qualitative-descriptive approach, provide a general account of sacred symbolism in Islamic Iranian art rather than focusing specifically on architecture. Therefore, there is a pressing need for a systematic study based on well-defined qualitative research methodologies.
Spirituality plays a dual role within our emotional system: on one hand, it generates emotion; on the other, it regulates it by creating a meaning-oriented structure [Mahdi Nejad et al., 2019]. In essence, spiritual matters are those associated with the Creator, referring to divine knowledge (ma‘rifat), faith and belief in Him (tawhid), and adherence to divine commands (shari‘a) [Sahhaf, 2016]. Some studies indicate that without the spiritual dimension, other dimensions of human existence, biological, psychological, and social cannot function properly or reach their full potential; hence, the highest attainable level of quality of life remains unreachable [Mueller et al., 2001].
Muslim artists, through their awareness of spirituality, have consistently sought to depict sacredness and transcendence within the physical and material structure of mosques by employing dynamic and mysterious elements. Accordingly, their ultimate goal in creating mosque spaces has been to recreate a movement that reminds the observer of another, higher world [HoomaniRad & Tahbaz, 2014]. The sense of spirituality can also be viewed in connection with the sense of place, as both involve a dynamic relationship developed through attachment to, awareness of, satisfaction with, and commitment to a place [Kaltenborn, 1998].
Islamic architecture draws from profound concepts derived from the Qur’an, embodying deep divine spirituality. Mosques from various periods of Islamic Iran exemplify the manifestation of these concepts in art, serving throughout history as the stage for social, political, and cultural events. Therefore, it can be asserted that separating Islamic architecture, particularly mosque architecture, from wisdom and spirituality is impossible. From a sacred worldview perspective, everything possesses an inner, hidden meaning that complements its external form, constituting a qualitative aspect of its being [Ardalan & Bakhtiar, 2015]. Symbolism in Islamic Iranian architecture stems from this same spirituality, in which purity and mystical truth are embodied. Mystery and symbolism are the essential characteristics of sacred (spiritual) art [Sahhaf, 2016]. This indicates that the sacred essence of form in Islamic architecture finds its highest expression in the mosque. Religious art in Islam reaches its most sublime form through the creation of mosque architecture [Iman Talab & Gerami, 2012].
Scholars such as Burckhardt and Nasr, through profound studies on the mysteries of Islamic art and reinterpretations of the hidden wisdom within Islamic architecture, have elaborated on the spiritual roots embedded in Iranian architectural structures [Nasr, 2015; Burckhardt, 2009]. In more recent applied research, HoomaniRad and Tahbaz examined the effect of daylight on the formation of spirituality in contemporary mosque spaces, emphasizing factors that contribute to the sense of sacredness [HoomaniRad & Tahbaz, 2014]. Similarly, Sadeghi and colleagues, in their study of spiritual architecture, analyzed sacred symbolism and holy imagery in mosque research, articulating the sacred mysteries in Islamic Iranian mosque architecture through a qualitative approach grounded in the principles of art and spiritually guided behavior [Sadeghi Habib Abad et al., 2017]. In the quantitative domain, Mahdi Nejad and coauthors examined the relationship between physical, psychological, and semantic parameters and the sense of spiritual tranquility in various mosques, using quantitative methods [Mahdi Nejad et al., 2019]. They analyzed two sets of parameters, sensory (color, light, sound) and physical (form, geometry, patterns, materials), and concluded that the studied mosques exhibit a satisfactory level of spiritual calmness. These studies serve as valuable references for the data and coding of the present research.
The use of abstract symbols to represent values in art, particularly in Iranian architecture, demonstrates that Iranians have always been meaning-oriented. Therefore, there is no need to establish the existence of meaning-centeredness in Iranian architecture. The present article seeks to define the criteria for creating a sense of spirituality by examining mosques as the supreme examples of Islamic Iranian architecture. This endeavor has been conducted through the qualitative research method known as Grounded Theory.
Methodology
The present study is applied in purpose and qualitative in method. A review of various qualitative research approaches suggested the use of the Grounded Theory method. Accordingly, the systematic approach attributed to Corbin and Strauss was employed for data analysis [Corbin & Strauss, 2014]. This systematic approach involves the description and labeling of data during open coding, comparison and analysis during axial coding, and the identification of patterns and theoretical foundations during selective coding.
Given that Grounded Theory emphasizes conducting research in real-world settings while seeking to apply its findings in practical contexts, the study required the selection of case samples. These cases were chosen to analyze and theorize based on their physical and meta-physical paradigms [Mansoori et al., 2019]. Thus, the research data were collected from both specialized literature and documentary sources, as well as from field observations and detailed evaluations of three historical congregational mosques: The Jameh Mosque of Yazd, the Jameh Mosque of Isfahan, and the Shah (Abbasi) Mosque.
Since in-depth interviewing is one of the most important factors in qualitative research, the primary criterion for sample selection was the researcher’s accessibility to participants and the possibility of extended presence for conducting systematic and comprehensive interviews. Accordingly, within the qualitative framework of Grounded Theory, the selected mosques were chosen not only for accessibility but also because they represent outstanding examples of Islamic Iranian architecture from different historical periods. The researcher conducted extensive fieldwork and performed in-depth interviews with 35 experts and practitioners who had prolonged experience in these mosques. The interviews were carried out during the summer of 2022 (1401 SH) across 11 sessions: five sessions for the Jameh Mosque of Yazd in September, and six sessions for the Jameh and Shah Mosques of Isfahan in July and August of the same year.
Following the typical Grounded Theory procedure, field data from each mosque were collected until theoretical saturation was reached—around the 29th interview—but to ensure robustness, interviews continued up to the 35th session [Akbari et al., 2020]. Subsequently, theory construction was performed in three stages: open coding, axial coding, and selective coding. To clarify the conceptual dimensions, the categories were hierarchically organized, and causal relationships among them were analyzed. In the final stage, a grounded theory based on the collected data was developed.
The spiritual environmental quality of the selected mosques and the components that contribute to the sense of spirituality within them were examined through the interviews. The extracted data were analyzed using the constructivist grounded theory approach. To enhance the validity of the research, a systematic framework was adopted, and NVivo software was employed for coding, analyzing, and determining the frequency of extracted codes. This process led to the development of a theoretical model identifying the components and dimensions that shape the sense of spirituality in mosque architecture.
The study focused on three major congregational mosques—Yazd, Isfahan, and Abbasi (Shah) Mosques—each representing distinctive architectural and historical significance:
- Jameh Mosque of Yazd: One of the grand and beautiful mosques of the Islamic periods in Yazd, dating back to the 8th century AH. The existing structure includes six entrances, a main portal with forecourts, the main courtyard, side porticoes, a high single iwan, a domed chamber, two summer prayer halls on either side, a warm chamber on the east and west sides, and two subterranean water access points [Hoseinyzadeh & Mirnezhad, 2015].
- Jameh Mosque of Isfahan (Masjed-e Jame‘ or Atigh): This mosque, also known as the Friday Mosque, contains architectural elements from several historical periods, including the Abbasid Caliphate, the Buyids, Seljuks, Ilkhanids, Muzaffarids, and Safavids—each dynasty contributing to different parts of the complex [Nekoee et al., 2019]. Due to its immense political and religious importance, each ruling government added sections to its structure [Bamanian & Amini, 2012].
- Abbasi (Shah) Mosque: Construction began in 1611 CE (1020 AH) under Shah Abbas I and was completed during his successors’ reigns. The mosque’s entrance portal, oriented toward Naqsh-e Jahan Square, forms an angle with the main axis of the mosque, which faces the qibla—an architectural challenge that was masterfully resolved [Ahmadi, 2009]. Two symmetrical prayer halls flank the main courtyard: the eastern hall is simple, undecorated, and larger, while the western hall is adorned with seven-color tilework.
Findings
Based on the interviews conducted with 35 experts during the research process, a total of 225 initial codes were extracted. Through multiple reviews and iterative integration of similar codes, these were refined into 25 open codes, 11 axial codes, and finally 5 selective codes.
A. Open Coding
In the open coding phase, the goal was to conceptualize the collected data and phenomena. After labeling, the dimensions of each concept were identified. Each category contained general characteristics essential for understanding the full scope of its dimensions.
For instance, regarding urban factors, one participant, Mohammad Hasan, distinguished the Shah Mosque (Masjed-e Imam) from other mosques by saying:
“The mosque’s location beside the square spiritually prepares the visitor in stages. It feels as though with every few steps, you feel closer to God.”
The recurring theme of the mosque’s spatial relationship with Naqsh-e Jahan Square was reflected in codes such as visual sequence, legibility, invitation, and entrance hierarchy.
The role of light in environmental perception was another highly recurring theme. For example, Razieh noted:
“Whenever I visit, I spend a long time in Naqsh-e Jahan Square. I think the color of the Sheikh Lotfollah Mosque dome changes throughout the day—mostly pink and cream during the day, and orange or brick-red at sunset. Especially when both mosques are visible, the effect becomes even more striking.”
Light was directly mentioned 23 times as a factor in creating chiaroscuro (light and shadow) and 11 times indirectly in relation to color changes and brightness in specific zones.
Regarding proportions and scale, most participants emphasized the mosques’ capacity to evoke spirituality. Masoud remarked: “The grandeur of the main iwan of the Jameh Mosque of Yazd always makes me feel small before God. I’ve felt this in other mosques too, but it’s always stronger here.”
Arash added: “The most impressive sensation I get is under the large muqarnas. Despite its massive size—beyond normal proportions—it gives me peace.”
The combination of grandeur and symmetry was among the most frequently mentioned themes. While large-scale physical features were often noted, participants’ focus tended to shift toward the architectural details. Mahsa observed: “It seems the tilework in the Imam Mosque isn’t just decoration. Without it, the mosque wouldn’t feel so tranquil. I agree that these ornaments remind one of paradise. They make this place unique—without them, the rest of the architecture wouldn’t create such a profound sense of sacredness.”
This distinction between large-scale and small-scale architectural features was consistent across participants.
In the secondary open coding stage, the initially extracted concepts were categorized based on similarities. Each category was assigned a broader, more abstract label that encompassed the underlying concepts while maintaining close relevance to the data. In the third phase, the defining characteristics of each category were identified, forming the foundation for discovering inter-category relationships and for developing the emerging theory.
B. Axial Coding
The second stage of data analysis in Grounded Theory—axial coding—aims to identify and establish relationships among the categories generated during open coding. The core of this stage involves expanding and linking one of the major categories to others. Based on the findings derived from document analysis and in-depth interviews, 11 major components were identified in this stage.
Using the Corbin and Strauss paradigm model, these 11 core phenomena were recognized as key determinants in evoking spirituality within the studied congregational mosques:
- Controlled presence of natural light
- Centric and symmetrical geometry
- Traditional geometric and arabesque ornamentation
- Rhythmic repetition in facades and interior spaces
- Spatial and qualitative diversity
- Symbolism in decorative geometry
- Grandeur and vastness
- Historical identity
- Visual sequence and perspective
- Application of color
- Use of traditional materials
To enhance precision and analytical reliability, data coding was conducted through two parallel processes—manual and software-based. The results of both were integrated to construct a conceptual model of theory development within the Grounded Theory framework.
C. Selective Coding
The selective coding phase represents the core stage of theory generation in Grounded Theory. Through this process, the central category and its systematic relationships with other categories were articulated into a coherent narrative. The naming and coding in this phase were based on conceptual interpretation and a majority consensus exceeding 50% of expert agreement.
Drawing upon theoretical foundations and memo-writing from earlier coding stages, the derived data were synthesized around the central category—identifying components influencing the creation of spirituality in traditional congregational mosques. The resulting theoretical framework, encompasses five selective codes:
- Unity of elements within a meaningful whole
- Traditional ornamentation grounded in mystical understanding
- Spatial openness and grandeur in physical structure
- Spiritual presence of light and creation of chiaroscuro
- Centric geometry and localized symmetry
Discussion
In comparing the findings of the present research with previous studies, the first major distinction lies in the absence of a pre-defined and categorized structure of qualitative factors influencing the experience of spirituality in mosque spaces, as explored through the Grounded Theory approach.
According to the results and their alignment with earlier related research, the components identified during axial and selective coding demonstrate a considerable level of consistency with the outcomes of previous scattered studies. However, this study distinguishes itself by its systematic classification of qualitative data based on the grounded theory method and by developing a coherent theoretical framework. The comparison also revealed that several findings—specifically, the selective codes—have been previously discussed in individual studies, and statements supporting them have been recorded.
Regarding the “spiritual presence of light and the creation of chiaroscuro,” Alborzi et al. argue that the interplay of light and shadow symbolizes a metaphoric guidance from darkness toward illumination. In Iranian Islamic architecture, light, beyond its functional role, possesses a representational and symbolic function [Alborzi et al., 2021]. Polarity or directionality in architectural art and spatial composition manifests through a focused orientation of vision, light, movement, and attention [Raeesi & Noghrekar, 2016]. Similar perspectives have been mentioned in the works of Bolkhari and Shafiei et al. [Bolkhari, 2014; Shafiei et al., 2014].
The concept of “unifying components within a meaningful whole” has also been discussed by Haqtalab and Karvan, Burckhardt, and Madadpour [Haqtalab & Karvan, 2011; Burckhardt, 2009; Madadpour, 2008]. According to Titus, all geometric forms in traditional architecture tend toward a central purpose, reflecting unity and divine oneness. He emphasizes that all designs inherently move toward one direction—symbolizing tawhid [Haqtalab & Karvan, 2011]. Consequently, the overall form and spatial arrangement of traditional religious architecture embody a cosmic meaning [Madadpour, 2008].
The interior ornamentations of mosques are constructed according to precise quantitative proportions that, in fact, reflect the meanings and truths of religion [Shekariniri, 2000]. This notion has been reiterated in the works of Ardalan and Bakhtiar, as well as Hillenbrand [Ardalan & Bakhtiar, 2015; Hillenbrand, 1985]. Hillenbrand maintains that the purpose of these decorations is to eliminate material distractions and replace them with intangible and spiritual realities [Hillenbrand, 1985].
The theme of “spatial openness and physical grandeur” has been similarly discussed in numerous studies. For instance, Ardalan and Bakhtiar noted that the domed chamber achieves unity through multiplicity, allowing the divine light to manifest delicately within the material world [Ardalan & Bakhtiar, 2015]. Kamrova’s findings also indicate that the use of vast spatial surfaces contributes to creating a tranquil atmosphere, offering worshippers the option to enter a cool, dimly lit, or dark prayer hall [Kamrova, 1996]. Therefore, the use of arabesque motifs and void spaces helps liberate physical matter from oppressive heaviness, granting the soul space to breathe and expand [Nasr, 2015].
The component “centripetal geometry and localized symmetry” has likewise been noted by Burckhardt and Pope [Burckhardt, 2009; Pope, 2004]. The application of proportion and geometry serves as a means for embodying symbolism and spiritual meaning, producing enduring architectural works inspired by the monotheistic worldview. Such an approach, in turn, can guide a meaning-oriented architect toward transcendence.
Suggestions
Based on the findings of this study, the following recommendations are proposed to enhance the sense of spirituality in mosque architecture:
- Establish unity among architectural elements by observing spatial hierarchy, following meaningful design patterns, and avoiding unnecessary embellishments.
- Incorporate the symbolic and spiritual presence of light by adopting traditional lighting schemes that control natural illumination.
- Utilize traditional decorative elements aligned with mystical perception, through classical geometric patterns, avoidance of modern materials, and thoughtful use of color.
- Achieve spatial openness by applying architectural features typical of domed chambers and prayer halls (shabestan).
- Emphasize centripetal geometry through techniques such as localized symmetry and geometric continuity among structural components.
Providing more precise and generalizable results requires examining a wider range of mosques across Iran’s diverse geographical and cultural contexts. The researchers’ limited access to other major congregational mosques (Jame Mosques) constituted the primary constraint of this study.
Conclusion
The findings of this research indicate that five key indicators—“unifying components within a meaningful whole,” “traditional ornamentation grounded in mystical understanding,” “spatial openness and architectural grandeur,” “spiritual presence of light and the creation of chiaroscuro,” and “centripetal geometry and localized symmetry”—are the main components contributing to the experience of spirituality in the studied mosques.
Acknowledgments: No acknowledgments have been reported by the authors.
Ethical Approval: The authors have adhered to the principles of academic ethics, including integrity, confidentiality, honesty, and related standards.
Conflict of Interest: No conflicts of interest have been declared by the authors.
Author Contributions: Khorsandian A (First Author), Principal Researcher (50%); Mahmoudi Kamel Abad M (Second Author), Assistant Researcher and Methodologist (30%); Noghrekar A (Third Author), Discussion Writer (20%)
Funding: This article is derived from the doctoral dissertation of the first author, titled “The Effects of Geometric Orders on the Spatial Configuration of Iranian Mosque Architecture,” supervised by the second and third authors at the University of Art, Isfahan, currently in progress.
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