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Volume 38, Issue 1 (2023)
GeoRes 2023, 38(1): 91-97 |
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Received: 2022/12/25 | Accepted: 2023/03/5 | Published: 2023/04/4
Received: 2022/12/25 | Accepted: 2023/03/5 | Published: 2023/04/4
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Najafi M, Mohebi M, Negahdari E. Correlation of Human Development Level with Gender Inequality and Gender Exploitation. GeoRes 2023; 38 (1) :91-97
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1- Department of Economics, Qeshm Branch, Islamic Azad University, Qeshm, Iran
2- Department of Economics, Faculty of Management, Economics and Accounting, Hormozgan University, Bandar Abbas, Iran
3- Department of Economics, Bandar Abbas Branch, Islamic Azad University, Bandar Abbas, Iran
2- Department of Economics, Faculty of Management, Economics and Accounting, Hormozgan University, Bandar Abbas, Iran
3- Department of Economics, Bandar Abbas Branch, Islamic Azad University, Bandar Abbas, Iran
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Introduction
Development encompasses multiple dimensions, and achieving these dimensions requires the optimal and comprehensive utilization of all capacities, potentials, and talents within a society. Neglecting or disregarding the capabilities and competencies of this significant portion of Iran’s population leads to the loss of valuable talents and competencies, thereby making it impossible to achieve development indicators. Moreover, it hinders the implementation of major economic plans aimed at attaining development [Safari Shali, 2015].
The fundamental principle of human development is to expand people’s choices, enable them to realize their capabilities, and benefit from valuable opportunities available to them. Equal opportunities in all areas, for both men and women, lie at the heart of human development. However, these opportunities are unequally distributed within and among societies, and unfortunately, many of them remain largely inaccessible to women [Hsu & Kovacevic, 2015]. Disadvantages and discrimination, as well as a lack of awareness regarding factors that affect women’s lives, such as physical and emotional health, social norms and values, institutions, and public policies manifest differently in various contexts across Iran. Women’s abilities, opportunities, and choices remain limited, resulting in less progress compared to men in key aspects such as health, education, living standards, empowerment, personal security, and other vital dimensions of human development. Consequently, many women’s life potentials cannot be fully realized. Since its first publication in 1990, the Human Development Report (HDR) has consistently highlighted many aspects of these inequalities, including disparities in education, labor, health, and political participation [Hsu & Kovacevic, 2015].
Women constitute one of the most important social groups both affected by and influencing quality of life. Due to their extensive connections with other social groups, women not only fulfill personal and familial responsibilities but also play an active role in social progress and sustainable development. They hold a crucial and decisive position in social activities and bear serious responsibilities in accelerating the process of change and sustainable development [Mirveisi, 2015]. Despite comprising a large proportion of the population in developing countries, women’s economic and social participation remains minimal, with most of them engaged in informal sectors such as services, industry, and agriculture.
Every development program must promote the growth of key economic and social indicators [Martic & Savic, 2001]. One of the most significant among these is the gender index. Proper implementation of development programs should lead to a reduction in gender inequalities. Although the gender gap in economic participation has been partly mitigated, it still persists [Purohit, 2018]. True development occurs only when all of its indicators grow in a balanced and integrated manner. In most countries today, gender is not a determining factor in the employment of human resources; rather, professional expertise and skill levels are the main criteria. However, in Iran, due to certain social and institutional conditions, male gender is often prioritized [Javaheri, 2019; Noorbakhsh, 2019].
Gender inequality and discrimination result in preferential or discriminatory treatment based on sex. Such attitudes divide individuals into two distinct groups [Shankar & Shah, 2015]: those who assume privileged access to resources and opportunities as a natural right due to their gender, and those who accept deprivation as inevitable. Generally, men fall into the first category and women into the second, although this classification is neither natural nor consistent with principles of justice and equality [Noorbakhsh, 2019]. Consequently, due to this unequal and biased structure, women have become impoverished both economically and in terms of capabilities in key areas such as employment, education, and health. Studies show that women are more vulnerable to poverty than men because they are deprived of the resources and opportunities necessary for empowerment and poverty reduction. Limited economic and social mobility often shaped by cultural and legal constraints further complicates poverty alleviation for women.
While human development and gender indices reflect differences in life expectancy, education, and income between men and women, in-depth “disaggregated” analysis is necessary to understand the complexities of gendered development. This is particularly true in countries like Iran, where geographic, ethnic, cultural, religious, and spatial diversities significantly affect gender-based opportunities and deprivations [Safiri, 2001]. Disaggregated data on women’s subgroups can reveal specific forms and causes of deprivation and help avoid treating women as a homogeneous group with identical needs. In fact, women’s experiences differ according to ethnicity, minority status, social class, and marital condition. Although many deprivations are shared, enhancing women’s capabilities and empowering them are essential to breaking the cycle of poverty and preventing its intergenerational transmission. United Nations gender experts emphasize that the Millennium Development Goals cannot be achieved unless gender inequalities are effectively eliminated [Shaditalab et al., 2005].
Gender inequality can only be reduced and women’s empowerment achieved through raising societal awareness and transforming socialization patterns by eliminating discriminatory, patriarchal, and stereotypical cultural attitudes toward women. Various factors including negative perceptions of women, traditional customs, religious beliefs, gender stereotypes, women’s capability poverty, legal status, ethnic and regional disparities, and the broader political, social, and economic context affect the degree of women’s gender-based deprivation or empowerment [Neguyan, 2022].
Human development and gender inequality indices have been widely examined in previous research. Findings by Kheiridoost and Nasiri [2015] indicate that Iran ranks near the bottom among countries with high human development in terms of women’s development indicators. However, Iran performs above the global average in women’s health and education. Hosseinpour [2013] reports that gender inequality, especially in economic and political spheres, remains pronounced in Islamic countries, reducing women’s participation and perpetuating gender injustice. Partoee et al. [2009] have found out that reducing gender inequality in education and employment sectors directly increases economic growth rates. Yahyaee [2004], in a comparative analytical study of gender development indices in Iran, Egypt, India, and Japan, demonstrated a significant and positive correlation between human development and gender development indices, as well as an inverse relationship between human development and income gender gap, with Japan ranking highest across indicators. Ketabi [2003] identifies factors such as higher education levels, access to financial resources, improved health, legal ownership rights, labor market equality, and elimination of traditional beliefs as key determinants of women’s empowerment.
According to Sheibani and Afshatri [2003], economic development has a significant positive linear effect on women’s status, with women’s conditions being better in wealthier provinces. However, their results also suggest that there is no confirmed linear relationship between economic development and gender inequality. Shakoori et al. [2007] further emphasize that women’s individual characteristics play a decisive role in their poverty, which is multidimensional, economic, social, and psychological. The low level of women’s empowerment, the nature of policy approaches, and capability poverty are among the main causes. Therefore, eradicating women’s poverty and transforming their socioeconomic position require fundamental structural changes.
Today, despite certain limitations, human development and gender development indices provide suitable measures for comparing levels of human development across countries. These indices can also illustrate the disparities in human and gender-based development among Iranian provinces, where ethnic, spatial, and lifestyle differences create varying degrees of development. The aim of the present study was to analyze the level of development across Iranian provinces in terms of gender-based deprivation and empowerment.
Methodology
This retrospective study was conducted based on the census results of the years 2009 and 2019 across the provinces of Iran (provincial divisions of 2006).
Provincial data regarding settlement type, population density (human resources), distance from the capital, level of human development, and gross domestic product (GDP) were collected using a checklist extracted from national statistical yearbooks. The Human Development Index (HDI) was calculated by combining three indicators: life expectancy, access to education, and income level.
To determine the Gender Benefit Index, the gender-adjusted Human Development Index was applied, categorized as low (less than 30), moderate (30), and high (greater than 30). The Gender Deprivation Index (GDI) was computed based on the same three components of life expectancy, access to education, and income disaggregated by gender. Although the GDI does not fully capture the multidimensional aspects of gender deprivation, it serves as a sufficiently valid indicator for measuring women’s well-being.
The Gender Inequality Index (GI) for each province was calculated using the following formula:
This index ranges between 0 and 1. The closer the value is to zero, the lower women’s access to income, education, and life expectancy; conversely, higher values indicate greater access. For interpretative purposes, the GI values were categorized as low (< 0.5), moderate (0.5–0.7), and high (0.8–1).
Data were analyzed using Pearson’s correlation coefficient and multivariate regression analysis to examine the effects of provincial development indices on the degree of gender deprivation and gender empowerment. All statistical analyses were performed using SPSS software, version 22.
Findings
Lorestan had the highest value in the geographical settlement index, Tehran ranked highest in the human development and population density (labor force) indices, and Ardabil showed the highest value in the distance-from-capital index. Kohgiluyeh and Boyer-Ahmad recorded the greatest gender inequality, while Gilan and Tehran demonstrated the highest levels of gender empowerment.
The level of human development showed a significant positive correlation with gender empowerment and a significant negative correlation with gender deprivation. The distance from the capital had a significant negative correlation with gender empowerment and a significant positive correlation with gender deprivation. Population density also exhibited a significant negative correlation with gender empowerment and a significant positive correlation with gender deprivation.
Urban settlement type had a significant positive correlation with gender empowerment and a significant negative correlation with gender deprivation. In contrast, rural settlement type showed a significant negative correlation with gender empowerment and a significant positive correlation with gender deprivation.
Based on the results of the regression analysis, the human development index explained 40.1% of the variance in gender deprivation in 2009 and 43.2% in 2019, and it accounted for 54.7% of the variance in gender empowerment in 2009 and 57.4% in 2019.
The distance-from-capital index explained 58.5% of the variance in gender deprivation in 2009 and 34.5% in 2019, and 45.1% of the variance in gender empowerment in 2009 and 40.3% in 2019.
The population density (labor force) index explained 48.3% of the variance in gender deprivation in 2009 and 43.1% in 2019, and 35.6% of the variance in gender empowerment in 2009 and 37.4% in 2019.
Finally, the settlement type index explained 29.3% of the variance in gender deprivation in 2009 and 29.4% in 2019, and 63.0% of the variance in gender empowerment in 2009 and 56.7% in 2019.
Discussion
The aim of this study was to examine the relationship between human and geographical development levels with the degree of deprivation and empowerment in gender indices across the provinces of Iran.
Gender equality, through empowerment and the provision of equal opportunities for all individuals regardless of gender has increasingly been recognized as a key social driver and a fundamental human right. It is not only a development goal in itself but also a means to achieving other development objectives [Campbell et al., 2021]. Positive changes in gender equality are associated with improvements in economic growth [World Bank, 2011], as well as with enhanced health and well-being [Heise et al., 2019].
There was a significant relationship between settlement type, population density (labor force), distance from the capital, human development level, and GDP with the dependent variables of gender deprivation and empowerment. The centrality of gender equality, women’s empowerment, and the realization of women’s rights in achieving sustainable development has increasingly been acknowledged in recent years. Women and girls constitute half of the world’s population and, consequently, half of its human potential. When their lives improve, the benefits reverberate throughout society. For instance, women’s access to decent employment and regular income not only contributes to poverty reduction but also supports better outcomes in education, health, and nutrition.
True development occurs when people can meet their needs without concern or deprivation. If one region of a country suffers from severe deprivation while another enjoys relative prosperity, development has become unbalanced. One of the most important factors in any society’s development is the gender index, which reflects the absence of discrimination in employment, education, health, and social participation between men and women. Research showed that a fairer distribution of positions and resources between men and women enhances economic growth and productivity, and that countries investing in girls’ education achieve higher rates of economic growth [Hemati & Matloubian, 2013]. Furthermore, evidence suggests that in societies where gender relations are more egalitarian, fertility and child mortality rates are lower, and most importantly higher gender equality is strongly associated with higher levels of economic growth [Hemati & Matloubian, 2013].
In Iran, considerable disparities in gender justice between women and men remain evident across regions. Between 2009 and 2019, the provinces of Kohgiluyeh and Boyer-Ahmad, Hormozgan, Lorestan, Sistan and Baluchestan, and Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari exhibited the highest levels of gender deprivation, while Tehran, Isfahan, Yazd, Ardabil, East and West Azerbaijan, and Zanjan showed the lowest. Conversely, Gilan, Tehran, Isfahan, Yazd, Ardabil, East and West Azerbaijan, and Zanjan recorded the highest levels of gender empowerment, while Ilam, Khorasan, Kohgiluyeh and Boyer-Ahmad, Hormozgan, and Sistan and Baluchestan had the lowest.
The correlation results indicated that the level of human development across Iranian regions increases gender empowerment and reduces gender deprivation. In moderately developed regions, gender deprivation tends to be lower. Moreover, the proximity or distance of a region from Tehran plays an important role: regions closer to the capital benefit from better access to facilities and resources, resulting in higher gender empowerment and lower deprivation levels. Conversely, high population density (labor force concentration) was found to decrease gender empowerment and increase deprivation. The type of geographical settlement (urban versus rural) also showed a significant effect, with rural settlements exhibiting higher gender deprivation compared to urban areas.
The linkage between gender equality and human development is critical for several reasons. First, it is a moral imperative: achieving gender equality, fulfilling human rights, and recognizing the capacities of diverse groups of women are essential to building a just and sustainable world. Second, addressing the disproportionate impact of economic, social, and environmental shocks on women and girls, impacts that undermine their human rights and essential family roles is crucial. Third, developing women’s capabilities fosters stronger synergies between gender equality and human development. Increasing evidence suggests mutual reinforcement between gender equality and economic, social, and environmental progress. For example, when women participate more actively in public management, public resources are more likely to be directed toward human development priorities, such as child health, nutrition, and employment opportunities [Chattopadhyay & Duflo, 2004].
Today, women’s full participation is increasingly recognized as a central element of policymaking. Certain aspects of gender equality such as women’s education and labor force participation can positively affect economic growth, although these effects depend on the nature of growth strategies, the structure of the economy, women’s sectoral employment distribution, and labor market segmentation, among other factors [Kabeer & Natali, 2013; Nguyen, 2021].
While gender equality can have a catalytic impact on achieving human and geographical development—and even on economic, social, and environmental sustainability, the reverse is not always true. Hence, a simple linear relationship between gender equality and human development cannot be assumed. Some growth and development patterns, in fact, rely on maintaining gender inequalities, such as wage gaps and entrenched discriminatory norms, values, and institutions [Seguino, 2000; Kabeer & Natali, 2013]. For instance, efforts to raise women’s wages for greater equity might stimulate economic growth, but they can also temporarily trigger economic contraction due to negative effects on investment and exports. Such short-term disruptions in demand may reduce male employment and production, making it more difficult to achieve long-term growth [Berik et al., 2009]. Thus, although gender equality can enhance labor quality in the long term, it may initially generate shocks that deviate the economy from its growth trajectory.
Despite these complexities, progress in gender equality across various dimensions in Iran has been uneven. For example, while undeniable advances have been made in girls’ access to education, many women and girls in remote areas remain deprived due to poverty and lack of adequate facilities. In other domains, such as labor force participation, innovation, and involvement in policymaking and management significant gender gaps persist. Bridging these gaps and ensuring equitable access to opportunities for women in all spheres is a crucial step toward achieving human development and removing barriers to gender parity in Iran.
Conclusion
The indices of human development including type of settlement, population density, distance from the capital, and level of human development, as well as the gross domestic product (GDP), significantly influence gender deprivation and gender empowerment
Acknowledgment: No acknowledgments were reported by the authors.
Ethical Permission: No ethical approval was reported by the authors.
Conflict of Interest: The authors declare that there were no conflicts of interest in conducting this research.
Authors’ Contributions: Najafi M (first author), Principal Researcher/Discussion Writer/Introduction Writer (35%); Mohebi M (second author), Assistant Researcher/Statistical analyst/Methodologist (35%); Negahdari E (third author), Assistant Researcher/Methodologist (30%).
Funding: The research expenses were funded by the first author.
Development encompasses multiple dimensions, and achieving these dimensions requires the optimal and comprehensive utilization of all capacities, potentials, and talents within a society. Neglecting or disregarding the capabilities and competencies of this significant portion of Iran’s population leads to the loss of valuable talents and competencies, thereby making it impossible to achieve development indicators. Moreover, it hinders the implementation of major economic plans aimed at attaining development [Safari Shali, 2015].
The fundamental principle of human development is to expand people’s choices, enable them to realize their capabilities, and benefit from valuable opportunities available to them. Equal opportunities in all areas, for both men and women, lie at the heart of human development. However, these opportunities are unequally distributed within and among societies, and unfortunately, many of them remain largely inaccessible to women [Hsu & Kovacevic, 2015]. Disadvantages and discrimination, as well as a lack of awareness regarding factors that affect women’s lives, such as physical and emotional health, social norms and values, institutions, and public policies manifest differently in various contexts across Iran. Women’s abilities, opportunities, and choices remain limited, resulting in less progress compared to men in key aspects such as health, education, living standards, empowerment, personal security, and other vital dimensions of human development. Consequently, many women’s life potentials cannot be fully realized. Since its first publication in 1990, the Human Development Report (HDR) has consistently highlighted many aspects of these inequalities, including disparities in education, labor, health, and political participation [Hsu & Kovacevic, 2015].
Women constitute one of the most important social groups both affected by and influencing quality of life. Due to their extensive connections with other social groups, women not only fulfill personal and familial responsibilities but also play an active role in social progress and sustainable development. They hold a crucial and decisive position in social activities and bear serious responsibilities in accelerating the process of change and sustainable development [Mirveisi, 2015]. Despite comprising a large proportion of the population in developing countries, women’s economic and social participation remains minimal, with most of them engaged in informal sectors such as services, industry, and agriculture.
Every development program must promote the growth of key economic and social indicators [Martic & Savic, 2001]. One of the most significant among these is the gender index. Proper implementation of development programs should lead to a reduction in gender inequalities. Although the gender gap in economic participation has been partly mitigated, it still persists [Purohit, 2018]. True development occurs only when all of its indicators grow in a balanced and integrated manner. In most countries today, gender is not a determining factor in the employment of human resources; rather, professional expertise and skill levels are the main criteria. However, in Iran, due to certain social and institutional conditions, male gender is often prioritized [Javaheri, 2019; Noorbakhsh, 2019].
Gender inequality and discrimination result in preferential or discriminatory treatment based on sex. Such attitudes divide individuals into two distinct groups [Shankar & Shah, 2015]: those who assume privileged access to resources and opportunities as a natural right due to their gender, and those who accept deprivation as inevitable. Generally, men fall into the first category and women into the second, although this classification is neither natural nor consistent with principles of justice and equality [Noorbakhsh, 2019]. Consequently, due to this unequal and biased structure, women have become impoverished both economically and in terms of capabilities in key areas such as employment, education, and health. Studies show that women are more vulnerable to poverty than men because they are deprived of the resources and opportunities necessary for empowerment and poverty reduction. Limited economic and social mobility often shaped by cultural and legal constraints further complicates poverty alleviation for women.
While human development and gender indices reflect differences in life expectancy, education, and income between men and women, in-depth “disaggregated” analysis is necessary to understand the complexities of gendered development. This is particularly true in countries like Iran, where geographic, ethnic, cultural, religious, and spatial diversities significantly affect gender-based opportunities and deprivations [Safiri, 2001]. Disaggregated data on women’s subgroups can reveal specific forms and causes of deprivation and help avoid treating women as a homogeneous group with identical needs. In fact, women’s experiences differ according to ethnicity, minority status, social class, and marital condition. Although many deprivations are shared, enhancing women’s capabilities and empowering them are essential to breaking the cycle of poverty and preventing its intergenerational transmission. United Nations gender experts emphasize that the Millennium Development Goals cannot be achieved unless gender inequalities are effectively eliminated [Shaditalab et al., 2005].
Gender inequality can only be reduced and women’s empowerment achieved through raising societal awareness and transforming socialization patterns by eliminating discriminatory, patriarchal, and stereotypical cultural attitudes toward women. Various factors including negative perceptions of women, traditional customs, religious beliefs, gender stereotypes, women’s capability poverty, legal status, ethnic and regional disparities, and the broader political, social, and economic context affect the degree of women’s gender-based deprivation or empowerment [Neguyan, 2022].
Human development and gender inequality indices have been widely examined in previous research. Findings by Kheiridoost and Nasiri [2015] indicate that Iran ranks near the bottom among countries with high human development in terms of women’s development indicators. However, Iran performs above the global average in women’s health and education. Hosseinpour [2013] reports that gender inequality, especially in economic and political spheres, remains pronounced in Islamic countries, reducing women’s participation and perpetuating gender injustice. Partoee et al. [2009] have found out that reducing gender inequality in education and employment sectors directly increases economic growth rates. Yahyaee [2004], in a comparative analytical study of gender development indices in Iran, Egypt, India, and Japan, demonstrated a significant and positive correlation between human development and gender development indices, as well as an inverse relationship between human development and income gender gap, with Japan ranking highest across indicators. Ketabi [2003] identifies factors such as higher education levels, access to financial resources, improved health, legal ownership rights, labor market equality, and elimination of traditional beliefs as key determinants of women’s empowerment.
According to Sheibani and Afshatri [2003], economic development has a significant positive linear effect on women’s status, with women’s conditions being better in wealthier provinces. However, their results also suggest that there is no confirmed linear relationship between economic development and gender inequality. Shakoori et al. [2007] further emphasize that women’s individual characteristics play a decisive role in their poverty, which is multidimensional, economic, social, and psychological. The low level of women’s empowerment, the nature of policy approaches, and capability poverty are among the main causes. Therefore, eradicating women’s poverty and transforming their socioeconomic position require fundamental structural changes.
Today, despite certain limitations, human development and gender development indices provide suitable measures for comparing levels of human development across countries. These indices can also illustrate the disparities in human and gender-based development among Iranian provinces, where ethnic, spatial, and lifestyle differences create varying degrees of development. The aim of the present study was to analyze the level of development across Iranian provinces in terms of gender-based deprivation and empowerment.
Methodology
This retrospective study was conducted based on the census results of the years 2009 and 2019 across the provinces of Iran (provincial divisions of 2006).
Provincial data regarding settlement type, population density (human resources), distance from the capital, level of human development, and gross domestic product (GDP) were collected using a checklist extracted from national statistical yearbooks. The Human Development Index (HDI) was calculated by combining three indicators: life expectancy, access to education, and income level.
To determine the Gender Benefit Index, the gender-adjusted Human Development Index was applied, categorized as low (less than 30), moderate (30), and high (greater than 30). The Gender Deprivation Index (GDI) was computed based on the same three components of life expectancy, access to education, and income disaggregated by gender. Although the GDI does not fully capture the multidimensional aspects of gender deprivation, it serves as a sufficiently valid indicator for measuring women’s well-being.
The Gender Inequality Index (GI) for each province was calculated using the following formula:
This index ranges between 0 and 1. The closer the value is to zero, the lower women’s access to income, education, and life expectancy; conversely, higher values indicate greater access. For interpretative purposes, the GI values were categorized as low (< 0.5), moderate (0.5–0.7), and high (0.8–1).
Data were analyzed using Pearson’s correlation coefficient and multivariate regression analysis to examine the effects of provincial development indices on the degree of gender deprivation and gender empowerment. All statistical analyses were performed using SPSS software, version 22.
Findings
Lorestan had the highest value in the geographical settlement index, Tehran ranked highest in the human development and population density (labor force) indices, and Ardabil showed the highest value in the distance-from-capital index. Kohgiluyeh and Boyer-Ahmad recorded the greatest gender inequality, while Gilan and Tehran demonstrated the highest levels of gender empowerment.
The level of human development showed a significant positive correlation with gender empowerment and a significant negative correlation with gender deprivation. The distance from the capital had a significant negative correlation with gender empowerment and a significant positive correlation with gender deprivation. Population density also exhibited a significant negative correlation with gender empowerment and a significant positive correlation with gender deprivation.
Urban settlement type had a significant positive correlation with gender empowerment and a significant negative correlation with gender deprivation. In contrast, rural settlement type showed a significant negative correlation with gender empowerment and a significant positive correlation with gender deprivation.
Based on the results of the regression analysis, the human development index explained 40.1% of the variance in gender deprivation in 2009 and 43.2% in 2019, and it accounted for 54.7% of the variance in gender empowerment in 2009 and 57.4% in 2019.
The distance-from-capital index explained 58.5% of the variance in gender deprivation in 2009 and 34.5% in 2019, and 45.1% of the variance in gender empowerment in 2009 and 40.3% in 2019.
The population density (labor force) index explained 48.3% of the variance in gender deprivation in 2009 and 43.1% in 2019, and 35.6% of the variance in gender empowerment in 2009 and 37.4% in 2019.
Finally, the settlement type index explained 29.3% of the variance in gender deprivation in 2009 and 29.4% in 2019, and 63.0% of the variance in gender empowerment in 2009 and 56.7% in 2019.
Discussion
The aim of this study was to examine the relationship between human and geographical development levels with the degree of deprivation and empowerment in gender indices across the provinces of Iran.
Gender equality, through empowerment and the provision of equal opportunities for all individuals regardless of gender has increasingly been recognized as a key social driver and a fundamental human right. It is not only a development goal in itself but also a means to achieving other development objectives [Campbell et al., 2021]. Positive changes in gender equality are associated with improvements in economic growth [World Bank, 2011], as well as with enhanced health and well-being [Heise et al., 2019].
There was a significant relationship between settlement type, population density (labor force), distance from the capital, human development level, and GDP with the dependent variables of gender deprivation and empowerment. The centrality of gender equality, women’s empowerment, and the realization of women’s rights in achieving sustainable development has increasingly been acknowledged in recent years. Women and girls constitute half of the world’s population and, consequently, half of its human potential. When their lives improve, the benefits reverberate throughout society. For instance, women’s access to decent employment and regular income not only contributes to poverty reduction but also supports better outcomes in education, health, and nutrition.
True development occurs when people can meet their needs without concern or deprivation. If one region of a country suffers from severe deprivation while another enjoys relative prosperity, development has become unbalanced. One of the most important factors in any society’s development is the gender index, which reflects the absence of discrimination in employment, education, health, and social participation between men and women. Research showed that a fairer distribution of positions and resources between men and women enhances economic growth and productivity, and that countries investing in girls’ education achieve higher rates of economic growth [Hemati & Matloubian, 2013]. Furthermore, evidence suggests that in societies where gender relations are more egalitarian, fertility and child mortality rates are lower, and most importantly higher gender equality is strongly associated with higher levels of economic growth [Hemati & Matloubian, 2013].
In Iran, considerable disparities in gender justice between women and men remain evident across regions. Between 2009 and 2019, the provinces of Kohgiluyeh and Boyer-Ahmad, Hormozgan, Lorestan, Sistan and Baluchestan, and Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari exhibited the highest levels of gender deprivation, while Tehran, Isfahan, Yazd, Ardabil, East and West Azerbaijan, and Zanjan showed the lowest. Conversely, Gilan, Tehran, Isfahan, Yazd, Ardabil, East and West Azerbaijan, and Zanjan recorded the highest levels of gender empowerment, while Ilam, Khorasan, Kohgiluyeh and Boyer-Ahmad, Hormozgan, and Sistan and Baluchestan had the lowest.
The correlation results indicated that the level of human development across Iranian regions increases gender empowerment and reduces gender deprivation. In moderately developed regions, gender deprivation tends to be lower. Moreover, the proximity or distance of a region from Tehran plays an important role: regions closer to the capital benefit from better access to facilities and resources, resulting in higher gender empowerment and lower deprivation levels. Conversely, high population density (labor force concentration) was found to decrease gender empowerment and increase deprivation. The type of geographical settlement (urban versus rural) also showed a significant effect, with rural settlements exhibiting higher gender deprivation compared to urban areas.
The linkage between gender equality and human development is critical for several reasons. First, it is a moral imperative: achieving gender equality, fulfilling human rights, and recognizing the capacities of diverse groups of women are essential to building a just and sustainable world. Second, addressing the disproportionate impact of economic, social, and environmental shocks on women and girls, impacts that undermine their human rights and essential family roles is crucial. Third, developing women’s capabilities fosters stronger synergies between gender equality and human development. Increasing evidence suggests mutual reinforcement between gender equality and economic, social, and environmental progress. For example, when women participate more actively in public management, public resources are more likely to be directed toward human development priorities, such as child health, nutrition, and employment opportunities [Chattopadhyay & Duflo, 2004].
Today, women’s full participation is increasingly recognized as a central element of policymaking. Certain aspects of gender equality such as women’s education and labor force participation can positively affect economic growth, although these effects depend on the nature of growth strategies, the structure of the economy, women’s sectoral employment distribution, and labor market segmentation, among other factors [Kabeer & Natali, 2013; Nguyen, 2021].
While gender equality can have a catalytic impact on achieving human and geographical development—and even on economic, social, and environmental sustainability, the reverse is not always true. Hence, a simple linear relationship between gender equality and human development cannot be assumed. Some growth and development patterns, in fact, rely on maintaining gender inequalities, such as wage gaps and entrenched discriminatory norms, values, and institutions [Seguino, 2000; Kabeer & Natali, 2013]. For instance, efforts to raise women’s wages for greater equity might stimulate economic growth, but they can also temporarily trigger economic contraction due to negative effects on investment and exports. Such short-term disruptions in demand may reduce male employment and production, making it more difficult to achieve long-term growth [Berik et al., 2009]. Thus, although gender equality can enhance labor quality in the long term, it may initially generate shocks that deviate the economy from its growth trajectory.
Despite these complexities, progress in gender equality across various dimensions in Iran has been uneven. For example, while undeniable advances have been made in girls’ access to education, many women and girls in remote areas remain deprived due to poverty and lack of adequate facilities. In other domains, such as labor force participation, innovation, and involvement in policymaking and management significant gender gaps persist. Bridging these gaps and ensuring equitable access to opportunities for women in all spheres is a crucial step toward achieving human development and removing barriers to gender parity in Iran.
Conclusion
The indices of human development including type of settlement, population density, distance from the capital, and level of human development, as well as the gross domestic product (GDP), significantly influence gender deprivation and gender empowerment
Acknowledgment: No acknowledgments were reported by the authors.
Ethical Permission: No ethical approval was reported by the authors.
Conflict of Interest: The authors declare that there were no conflicts of interest in conducting this research.
Authors’ Contributions: Najafi M (first author), Principal Researcher/Discussion Writer/Introduction Writer (35%); Mohebi M (second author), Assistant Researcher/Statistical analyst/Methodologist (35%); Negahdari E (third author), Assistant Researcher/Methodologist (30%).
Funding: The research expenses were funded by the first author.
Keywords:
References
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