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Volume 38, Issue 1 (2023)
GeoRes 2023, 38(1): 11-17 |
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Received: 2022/11/29 | Accepted: 2023/02/13 | Published: 2023/03/1
Received: 2022/11/29 | Accepted: 2023/02/13 | Published: 2023/03/1
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Dolatkhah G, Mirsardoo T, Adham A. Investigating Sociocultural Barriers Affecting the Underdevelopment of Bileh savar City based on the Opinion of the Citizens. GeoRes 2023; 38 (1) :11-17
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1- Department of Sociology, North Tehran Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran
2- Department of Management, Central Tehran Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran
2- Department of Management, Central Tehran Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran
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Introduction
The multidimensional and multifaceted nature of the development process, along with the role of government macro-plans in its realization, represents a crucial area of study, particularly in developing societies. Striking a balance between the qualitative and quantitative dimensions of development can explain governmental effectiveness across various sectors of society; conversely, the prominence of one dimension can marginalize others and generate social inequalities. Without aligning economic development programs with the prevailing cultural and social conditions of a society, economic development cannot succeed in the long term. Sustainable economic development requires consideration of the target society's culture and its characteristics [Dupuy, 1996].
Despite attention to development components in upstream documents, the Islamic Republic of Iran has yet to achieve a favorable position at the regional and international levels. According to the International Institute for Social Studies, which publishes the “Social Development Index” every five years—covering civil activity, clubs and associations, intragroup cohesion, interpersonal trust and security, gender equality, and minority integration, Iran ranked 85th in 2005 and 99th in 2010 among 129 countries. Furthermore, in the Legatum Institute’s ranking based on eight indices economy, entrepreneurial opportunities, governance, education, health, security, personal freedoms, and social capital Iran was ranked 106th out of 142 countries. Specifically, Iran’s rankings were 65th in education, 67th in health, 120th in social security, 115th in social capital, and 131st in personal freedoms [Legatum Institute, 2015].
Overall, it can be stated that at the macro level, Iran has not been able to achieve development indicators across various dimensions according to its development plans. The consequences of this failure are more visible not only at the macro level but also at the micro level, particularly in small cities [Basiripoor et al., 2021]. Multiple factors contribute to Iran’s inability to achieve comprehensive development, including economic, social, cultural, political, and geographical factors. Among these, cultural and social factors may play a more prominent role; unless cultural and social barriers are removed, the development process cannot be effectively realized. Sociologists argue that societal development requires transformation in the cultural and social foundations of society, and development aimed at advancing society cannot occur without deep changes in socio-cultural structures [Fatholahi et al., 2016; Eslami, 2012]. Research indicates that neglect or insufficient attention to any of the economic, social, cultural, political, or geographical factors can jeopardize all development programs.
Since social phenomena cannot be explained through a one-dimensional perspective, it is essential to adopt an integrative theoretical framework for a more comprehensive understanding of the present study. This approach offers a high capacity for understanding and analyzing social phenomena. In his theory of cultural capital, Bourdieu emphasizes that dominant classes, due to their greater material resources and access to various cultural forms (e.g., music, sports, cuisine), are able to shape tastes. In other words, Bourdieu considers the interests specific to dominant classes as the benchmark for measuring cultural capital. Cultural capital can be defined as an asset that embodies, stores, or provides cultural value, in addition to any economic value [Didari et al., 2019]. The stock of cultural capital refers to the quantity of such capital at a given time and is measured using appropriate units, such as material quantities or cumulative valuation. Over time, this stock generates a flow of services that may be used for the production of additional goods and services. Cultural capital exists in two forms: tangible, including buildings, sites, landmarks, artworks, and sculptures, essentially encompassing tangible cultural heritage and intangible, comprising spiritual capital such as shared ideas, practices, beliefs, and values [Rouhani, 2009; Azubayeva, 2021]. Bourdieu categorizes cultural capital into three types: (1) embodied, encompassing long-lasting dispositions of the mind and body; (2) objectified, manifesting in cultural goods such as books, computers, and artworks; and (3) institutionalized, represented through formal credentials and other evidence of cultural standing [Bourdieu, 1986].
Rogers, another theorist of development and modernization, emphasizes the role of individual characteristics and personality systems within peasant subcultures. According to him, the adoption of innovations varies across cultures. Although innovators initially perceive themselves as deviant, challenging existing social norms, and may be marginalized, psychological conditions must be conducive to the acceptance of innovations. In some subcultures, obstacles such as mutual distrust, lack of innovation, fatalism, low aspirations, prioritization of immediate over future benefits, disregard for time, family-centeredness, dependence on governmental authority, localism, and lack of empathy hinder development and modernization [Derakhshide & Gharibi, 2014].
Daniel Lerner, a prominent modernization theorist, compiled his fieldwork in six Middle Eastern countries in The Passing of Traditional Society: Modernization in the Middle East. Lerner identified literacy, communication expansion, urbanization, and participation as key parameters for psychological modernization. He also has noted that urbanization trends generally correlate with increased literacy, media exposure, and political and economic participation [Granmayehpour & Ansari, 2010]. Lerner contrasted illiteracy with enlightenment, withdrawal with ambition, and submission with rebellion, suggesting that modern societies encourage mobility, rationality, and empathy. Through concepts such as empathy and transitional personality, he sought to identify the psychological readiness of individuals to accept innovation and modernization.
Inkeles, another theorist on the psychological aspects of modernization, emphasizes attitudes that foster individual innovativeness: mental and psychological readiness to absorb new experiences, openness to diverse opinions regarding environmental and societal issues, focus on the present and future rather than the past, belief in human capacity to control nature, commitment to planning and organization for public and personal life, trust, merit-based reward allocation, adherence to higher values and ideals, and respect for education and individuals [Inkeles, 1975].
Samuel Huntington also has argued that traditional individuals expect stasis in nature and society, whereas modern individuals are confronted with diverse perspectives, accept change, and adapt accordingly [Huntington & Weiner, 2000]. Almond and Powell similarly contend that modern individuals are informed, participatory citizens who act rationally and independently, while remaining receptive to new ideas.
Putnam popularized the concept of social capital, defining it as networks, norms, and trust that enable members to act collectively more effectively to achieve shared objectives [Derakhshide & Gharibi, 2014]. He considers social capital a key condition for development, asserting that civil engagement networks embedded in norms are prerequisites for economic development and influence governance. Coleman further posits that social capital reduces the costs of achieving specific goals, which would otherwise be prohibitively expensive.
The present study aims to examine the socio-cultural barriers to the development of Bilesavar city within a sociological framework.
Methodology
This study employed a survey design and was conducted in 2022 in the city of Bilesavar. The statistical population comprised citizens aged over 20 years with a minimum education of a high school diploma. A total of 400 participants were selected using random sampling, and the sample size was determined based on Cochran’s formula.
Data were collected using a researcher-made questionnaire. The questionnaire items were defined using prominent indicators from various theoretical frameworks. Social capital included social trust, social cohesion, and social participation [Gharibi et al., 2010; Shaditalab & Hojati Kermani, 2008]. Cultural capital included individuals’ knowledge and awareness, and educational attainment [Fokohi, 2020]. Innovative attitudes and perceptions of values encompassed social and cultural values and individuals’ responses to these values [Hajilari, 2001]. Human capital was measured through innovation, elitism, and expertise [Yavari & Saadat, 2002]. The acquisitive spirit was assessed by wealth accumulation and display, pride, and demands for special privileges in different social layers. Dependency on the government was measured from two aspects: economic-financial dependence (e.g., receipt of subsidies and facilities) and citizens’ expectations of government institutions to solve issues beyond their personal capacity (e.g., establishing cultural facilities such as libraries, sports complexes, and clinics). These indicators were evaluated using a five-point Likert scale.
To assess the validity of the questionnaire items, the expert judgment method was applied. Initially, 45 items were extracted and the questionnaire was distributed among 30 specialists in urban development and management, selected through purposive sampling. Following their feedback, necessary revisions were made, and the questionnaire was redistributed to the same experts. After these two stages, the number of items was reduced to 37. The reliability of the questionnaire was calculated using Cronbach’s alpha, resulting in a coefficient of 0.79.
After data collection, Pearson correlation analysis was used to examine the relationship between the level of urban development in Bilesavar and social capital (social trust, social cohesion, and social participation), cultural capital (knowledge and awareness, educational attainment), innovative attitudes and perceptions of values (social and cultural values and individual responses), human capital (innovation, elitism, and expertise), acquisitive spirit (wealth accumulation and display, pride, and demands for special privileges), and government dependency (socio-cultural barriers). For prioritizing the indicators, Shannon entropy, VIKOR, and TOPSIS methods were applied. Finally, the Borda and Copeland methods were used to derive a final weighting based on the priorities obtained from Shannon entropy, VIKOR, and TOPSIS [Parsaee et al., 2022].
Findings
Among the participants, 299 individuals (74.8%) were male, 190 individuals (47.5%) were aged 30–40 years, 322 participants (80.5%) were married, and 293 individuals (73.3%) held a bachelor’s degree.
A significant correlation was observed between underdevelopment and social capital (r=0.479, p<0.05), cultural capital (r=0.524, p<0.001), human capital (r=0.499, p<0.001), acquisitive spirit (r=-0.527, p<0.05), innovative attitudes and perceptions (r=-0.494, p<0.05), and government dependency (r=0.559, p<0.001).
The government dependency and human capital indices ranked first and second, respectively, in terms of their importance for the underdevelopment of Bilesavar city, while social capital and innovative attitudes ranked lowest.
Discussion
The present study aimed to examine the socio-cultural barriers to underdevelopment in Bilesavar city from the perspective of its citizens. Progress and development result from a particular worldview, and without cultivating this perspective, development is not achievable. This specific worldview underscores the necessity of an appropriate socio-cultural infrastructure for development. Therefore, socio-cultural factors hold a special position in the development process, and neglect or insufficient attention to these factors can undermine development programs.
The findings of this study indicated significant relationships between social capital, cultural capital, human capital, acquisitive spirit, innovative attitudes and perceptions, and government dependency with the underdevelopment of Bilesavar city. According to the results, government dependency and human capital ranked first and second, respectively, in importance among the indicators influencing the city’s underdevelopment, while social capital and innovative attitudes were of least importance.
Social capital in Bilesavar was not fully developed due to the ethnic, tribal, and social structures of the city, manifesting primarily in small-scale ethnic, tribal, and clan-based collaborations. In the domain of public participation, political engagement showed relatively high levels, which appear to result from ethnic and tribal rivalries and assertions of dominance. Consequently, political orientations in elections were predominantly influenced by ethnic affiliations. Social trust in the city also appeared suboptimal. Additionally, for various reasons, residents showed limited interest in acquiring the social skills necessary to enhance social relations and expand participation through social organizations (NGOs). This reluctance was initially linked to distrust and a lack of awareness regarding the benefits of such participation. Existing data on NGOs and cooperatives active in Bilesavar’s development process indicate serious weaknesses in this area. These findings on the negative impact of weak social capital on underdevelopment align with previous studies by Derakhshide and Gharibi (2014), Piri et al. (2019), Ghavihoosh (2015), Grootaert and Bastelaert (2002), and Anchorena and Anjos (2015).
Cultural development was influenced by cultural capital. The more favorable the indicators of cultural capital, the more feasible cultural development becomes. Cultural capital functions as a driving force for societal progress, representing an individual’s knowledge, ability to utilize cultural goods, and enduring personal inclinations, accumulated through socialization across three dimensions: Embodied, objectified, and institutionalized. Lack of awareness regarding the cultural capital of a society’s members (experiential skills, educational degrees, and expertise) is akin to a hidden treasure. Unequal distribution of cultural capital can have adverse consequences, including reduced public participation in productive and creative activities, limited information flow, restricted acquisition of new knowledge, and diminished societal receptivity to change. The emergence of modernity and the entry of industrial-cultural elements, along with consequent cultural development in Bilesavar, has been suboptimal, representing a significant barrier to overall development. These results are consistent with the findings of Zali and Sajadi Asl (2017), Moloudian et al. (2015), Derakhshide and Gharibi (2014), Misra and Mabogunje (1981), and Borg and Russo (2005), all of whom emphasized the negative impact of weak cultural capital on development.
From the perspective of Bilesavar citizens, human capital is significantly related to the city’s underdevelopment. Human capital plays a key role in personal growth, improving living standards and income, increasing knowledge and skills, enhancing production capacities, stimulating economic growth, and reducing poverty. Given the ongoing global transformations, the importance of human resources has become more pronounced than ever. Lack of attention to elite capabilities and insufficient allocation of financial resources to promote innovation have contributed to the weakness of this indicator. These findings align with Popa (2012).
Changes in values and attitudes, although potentially enhancing the utilization of resources and access to opportunities, have not been widely embraced in Bilesavar. The prevailing traditional worldview and entrenched conservatism challenge the implementation of any development programs and social changes that rely on adopting innovations. Therefore, development programs must be designed with an understanding of local values, perspectives, attitudes, and motivations; otherwise, achieving objectives such as improving conditions for residents, especially in marginalized and remote areas—is unlikely, and failure is almost inevitable. Ghavihoosh et al. (2015) similarly have highlighted values and attitudes as key factors in the underdevelopment of Germi County.
The acquisitive spirit, if widespread, can gradually become a social norm and a serious threat, as it promotes wealth display, pride, and excessive demands. However, when cultivated as a positive social identity, it can act as a driver of change and social mobility. In Bilesavar, acquisitive tendencies are weak; the principal force of advancement or progressive thought has not yet emerged to motivate economic effort and development.
Government dependency can be viewed from two dimensions. The first relates to material and economic dependence, where programs such as subsidies, lack of private sector employment opportunities, reliance on public sector jobs, economic instability, and inflation have created dependence. Inadequate planning to generate employment and reduce dependence hinders development. The second dimension concerns citizens’ expectations of government institutions to address local issues (e.g., establishing libraries, sports complexes, and clinics), which are often unmet. Didari et al. (2019) similarly emphasized the importance of addressing government dependency and having a capable state to achieve comprehensive development.
Based on these findings, the following recommendations are proposed to address underdevelopment in Bilesavar:
Conclusion
Social capital, cultural capital, human capital, innovative attitudes and perceptions, acquisitive spirit, and government dependency are all related to the underdevelopment of Bilesavar city. Among these factors, government dependency and human capital have the greatest impact, while social capital and innovative attitudes have the least influence on the city’s underdevelopment.
Acknowledgments: No acknowledgments were reported by the authors.
Ethical Permission: No ethical approval was reported by the authors.
Conflict of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Author Contributions: Dolatkhah Gh (First Author), Principal Researcher/Introduction Writer (35%); Mirsardoo T (Second Author), Assistant Researcher/Data Analyst (30%); Adhami A (Third Author), Methodologist/Discussion Writer (20%).
Funding: This article is derived from the dissertation of Mr. Ghader Dolatkhaah, and all associated expenses were personally funded
The multidimensional and multifaceted nature of the development process, along with the role of government macro-plans in its realization, represents a crucial area of study, particularly in developing societies. Striking a balance between the qualitative and quantitative dimensions of development can explain governmental effectiveness across various sectors of society; conversely, the prominence of one dimension can marginalize others and generate social inequalities. Without aligning economic development programs with the prevailing cultural and social conditions of a society, economic development cannot succeed in the long term. Sustainable economic development requires consideration of the target society's culture and its characteristics [Dupuy, 1996].
Despite attention to development components in upstream documents, the Islamic Republic of Iran has yet to achieve a favorable position at the regional and international levels. According to the International Institute for Social Studies, which publishes the “Social Development Index” every five years—covering civil activity, clubs and associations, intragroup cohesion, interpersonal trust and security, gender equality, and minority integration, Iran ranked 85th in 2005 and 99th in 2010 among 129 countries. Furthermore, in the Legatum Institute’s ranking based on eight indices economy, entrepreneurial opportunities, governance, education, health, security, personal freedoms, and social capital Iran was ranked 106th out of 142 countries. Specifically, Iran’s rankings were 65th in education, 67th in health, 120th in social security, 115th in social capital, and 131st in personal freedoms [Legatum Institute, 2015].
Overall, it can be stated that at the macro level, Iran has not been able to achieve development indicators across various dimensions according to its development plans. The consequences of this failure are more visible not only at the macro level but also at the micro level, particularly in small cities [Basiripoor et al., 2021]. Multiple factors contribute to Iran’s inability to achieve comprehensive development, including economic, social, cultural, political, and geographical factors. Among these, cultural and social factors may play a more prominent role; unless cultural and social barriers are removed, the development process cannot be effectively realized. Sociologists argue that societal development requires transformation in the cultural and social foundations of society, and development aimed at advancing society cannot occur without deep changes in socio-cultural structures [Fatholahi et al., 2016; Eslami, 2012]. Research indicates that neglect or insufficient attention to any of the economic, social, cultural, political, or geographical factors can jeopardize all development programs.
Since social phenomena cannot be explained through a one-dimensional perspective, it is essential to adopt an integrative theoretical framework for a more comprehensive understanding of the present study. This approach offers a high capacity for understanding and analyzing social phenomena. In his theory of cultural capital, Bourdieu emphasizes that dominant classes, due to their greater material resources and access to various cultural forms (e.g., music, sports, cuisine), are able to shape tastes. In other words, Bourdieu considers the interests specific to dominant classes as the benchmark for measuring cultural capital. Cultural capital can be defined as an asset that embodies, stores, or provides cultural value, in addition to any economic value [Didari et al., 2019]. The stock of cultural capital refers to the quantity of such capital at a given time and is measured using appropriate units, such as material quantities or cumulative valuation. Over time, this stock generates a flow of services that may be used for the production of additional goods and services. Cultural capital exists in two forms: tangible, including buildings, sites, landmarks, artworks, and sculptures, essentially encompassing tangible cultural heritage and intangible, comprising spiritual capital such as shared ideas, practices, beliefs, and values [Rouhani, 2009; Azubayeva, 2021]. Bourdieu categorizes cultural capital into three types: (1) embodied, encompassing long-lasting dispositions of the mind and body; (2) objectified, manifesting in cultural goods such as books, computers, and artworks; and (3) institutionalized, represented through formal credentials and other evidence of cultural standing [Bourdieu, 1986].
Rogers, another theorist of development and modernization, emphasizes the role of individual characteristics and personality systems within peasant subcultures. According to him, the adoption of innovations varies across cultures. Although innovators initially perceive themselves as deviant, challenging existing social norms, and may be marginalized, psychological conditions must be conducive to the acceptance of innovations. In some subcultures, obstacles such as mutual distrust, lack of innovation, fatalism, low aspirations, prioritization of immediate over future benefits, disregard for time, family-centeredness, dependence on governmental authority, localism, and lack of empathy hinder development and modernization [Derakhshide & Gharibi, 2014].
Daniel Lerner, a prominent modernization theorist, compiled his fieldwork in six Middle Eastern countries in The Passing of Traditional Society: Modernization in the Middle East. Lerner identified literacy, communication expansion, urbanization, and participation as key parameters for psychological modernization. He also has noted that urbanization trends generally correlate with increased literacy, media exposure, and political and economic participation [Granmayehpour & Ansari, 2010]. Lerner contrasted illiteracy with enlightenment, withdrawal with ambition, and submission with rebellion, suggesting that modern societies encourage mobility, rationality, and empathy. Through concepts such as empathy and transitional personality, he sought to identify the psychological readiness of individuals to accept innovation and modernization.
Inkeles, another theorist on the psychological aspects of modernization, emphasizes attitudes that foster individual innovativeness: mental and psychological readiness to absorb new experiences, openness to diverse opinions regarding environmental and societal issues, focus on the present and future rather than the past, belief in human capacity to control nature, commitment to planning and organization for public and personal life, trust, merit-based reward allocation, adherence to higher values and ideals, and respect for education and individuals [Inkeles, 1975].
Samuel Huntington also has argued that traditional individuals expect stasis in nature and society, whereas modern individuals are confronted with diverse perspectives, accept change, and adapt accordingly [Huntington & Weiner, 2000]. Almond and Powell similarly contend that modern individuals are informed, participatory citizens who act rationally and independently, while remaining receptive to new ideas.
Putnam popularized the concept of social capital, defining it as networks, norms, and trust that enable members to act collectively more effectively to achieve shared objectives [Derakhshide & Gharibi, 2014]. He considers social capital a key condition for development, asserting that civil engagement networks embedded in norms are prerequisites for economic development and influence governance. Coleman further posits that social capital reduces the costs of achieving specific goals, which would otherwise be prohibitively expensive.
The present study aims to examine the socio-cultural barriers to the development of Bilesavar city within a sociological framework.
Methodology
This study employed a survey design and was conducted in 2022 in the city of Bilesavar. The statistical population comprised citizens aged over 20 years with a minimum education of a high school diploma. A total of 400 participants were selected using random sampling, and the sample size was determined based on Cochran’s formula.
Data were collected using a researcher-made questionnaire. The questionnaire items were defined using prominent indicators from various theoretical frameworks. Social capital included social trust, social cohesion, and social participation [Gharibi et al., 2010; Shaditalab & Hojati Kermani, 2008]. Cultural capital included individuals’ knowledge and awareness, and educational attainment [Fokohi, 2020]. Innovative attitudes and perceptions of values encompassed social and cultural values and individuals’ responses to these values [Hajilari, 2001]. Human capital was measured through innovation, elitism, and expertise [Yavari & Saadat, 2002]. The acquisitive spirit was assessed by wealth accumulation and display, pride, and demands for special privileges in different social layers. Dependency on the government was measured from two aspects: economic-financial dependence (e.g., receipt of subsidies and facilities) and citizens’ expectations of government institutions to solve issues beyond their personal capacity (e.g., establishing cultural facilities such as libraries, sports complexes, and clinics). These indicators were evaluated using a five-point Likert scale.
To assess the validity of the questionnaire items, the expert judgment method was applied. Initially, 45 items were extracted and the questionnaire was distributed among 30 specialists in urban development and management, selected through purposive sampling. Following their feedback, necessary revisions were made, and the questionnaire was redistributed to the same experts. After these two stages, the number of items was reduced to 37. The reliability of the questionnaire was calculated using Cronbach’s alpha, resulting in a coefficient of 0.79.
After data collection, Pearson correlation analysis was used to examine the relationship between the level of urban development in Bilesavar and social capital (social trust, social cohesion, and social participation), cultural capital (knowledge and awareness, educational attainment), innovative attitudes and perceptions of values (social and cultural values and individual responses), human capital (innovation, elitism, and expertise), acquisitive spirit (wealth accumulation and display, pride, and demands for special privileges), and government dependency (socio-cultural barriers). For prioritizing the indicators, Shannon entropy, VIKOR, and TOPSIS methods were applied. Finally, the Borda and Copeland methods were used to derive a final weighting based on the priorities obtained from Shannon entropy, VIKOR, and TOPSIS [Parsaee et al., 2022].
Findings
Among the participants, 299 individuals (74.8%) were male, 190 individuals (47.5%) were aged 30–40 years, 322 participants (80.5%) were married, and 293 individuals (73.3%) held a bachelor’s degree.
A significant correlation was observed between underdevelopment and social capital (r=0.479, p<0.05), cultural capital (r=0.524, p<0.001), human capital (r=0.499, p<0.001), acquisitive spirit (r=-0.527, p<0.05), innovative attitudes and perceptions (r=-0.494, p<0.05), and government dependency (r=0.559, p<0.001).
The government dependency and human capital indices ranked first and second, respectively, in terms of their importance for the underdevelopment of Bilesavar city, while social capital and innovative attitudes ranked lowest.
Discussion
The present study aimed to examine the socio-cultural barriers to underdevelopment in Bilesavar city from the perspective of its citizens. Progress and development result from a particular worldview, and without cultivating this perspective, development is not achievable. This specific worldview underscores the necessity of an appropriate socio-cultural infrastructure for development. Therefore, socio-cultural factors hold a special position in the development process, and neglect or insufficient attention to these factors can undermine development programs.
The findings of this study indicated significant relationships between social capital, cultural capital, human capital, acquisitive spirit, innovative attitudes and perceptions, and government dependency with the underdevelopment of Bilesavar city. According to the results, government dependency and human capital ranked first and second, respectively, in importance among the indicators influencing the city’s underdevelopment, while social capital and innovative attitudes were of least importance.
Social capital in Bilesavar was not fully developed due to the ethnic, tribal, and social structures of the city, manifesting primarily in small-scale ethnic, tribal, and clan-based collaborations. In the domain of public participation, political engagement showed relatively high levels, which appear to result from ethnic and tribal rivalries and assertions of dominance. Consequently, political orientations in elections were predominantly influenced by ethnic affiliations. Social trust in the city also appeared suboptimal. Additionally, for various reasons, residents showed limited interest in acquiring the social skills necessary to enhance social relations and expand participation through social organizations (NGOs). This reluctance was initially linked to distrust and a lack of awareness regarding the benefits of such participation. Existing data on NGOs and cooperatives active in Bilesavar’s development process indicate serious weaknesses in this area. These findings on the negative impact of weak social capital on underdevelopment align with previous studies by Derakhshide and Gharibi (2014), Piri et al. (2019), Ghavihoosh (2015), Grootaert and Bastelaert (2002), and Anchorena and Anjos (2015).
Cultural development was influenced by cultural capital. The more favorable the indicators of cultural capital, the more feasible cultural development becomes. Cultural capital functions as a driving force for societal progress, representing an individual’s knowledge, ability to utilize cultural goods, and enduring personal inclinations, accumulated through socialization across three dimensions: Embodied, objectified, and institutionalized. Lack of awareness regarding the cultural capital of a society’s members (experiential skills, educational degrees, and expertise) is akin to a hidden treasure. Unequal distribution of cultural capital can have adverse consequences, including reduced public participation in productive and creative activities, limited information flow, restricted acquisition of new knowledge, and diminished societal receptivity to change. The emergence of modernity and the entry of industrial-cultural elements, along with consequent cultural development in Bilesavar, has been suboptimal, representing a significant barrier to overall development. These results are consistent with the findings of Zali and Sajadi Asl (2017), Moloudian et al. (2015), Derakhshide and Gharibi (2014), Misra and Mabogunje (1981), and Borg and Russo (2005), all of whom emphasized the negative impact of weak cultural capital on development.
From the perspective of Bilesavar citizens, human capital is significantly related to the city’s underdevelopment. Human capital plays a key role in personal growth, improving living standards and income, increasing knowledge and skills, enhancing production capacities, stimulating economic growth, and reducing poverty. Given the ongoing global transformations, the importance of human resources has become more pronounced than ever. Lack of attention to elite capabilities and insufficient allocation of financial resources to promote innovation have contributed to the weakness of this indicator. These findings align with Popa (2012).
Changes in values and attitudes, although potentially enhancing the utilization of resources and access to opportunities, have not been widely embraced in Bilesavar. The prevailing traditional worldview and entrenched conservatism challenge the implementation of any development programs and social changes that rely on adopting innovations. Therefore, development programs must be designed with an understanding of local values, perspectives, attitudes, and motivations; otherwise, achieving objectives such as improving conditions for residents, especially in marginalized and remote areas—is unlikely, and failure is almost inevitable. Ghavihoosh et al. (2015) similarly have highlighted values and attitudes as key factors in the underdevelopment of Germi County.
The acquisitive spirit, if widespread, can gradually become a social norm and a serious threat, as it promotes wealth display, pride, and excessive demands. However, when cultivated as a positive social identity, it can act as a driver of change and social mobility. In Bilesavar, acquisitive tendencies are weak; the principal force of advancement or progressive thought has not yet emerged to motivate economic effort and development.
Government dependency can be viewed from two dimensions. The first relates to material and economic dependence, where programs such as subsidies, lack of private sector employment opportunities, reliance on public sector jobs, economic instability, and inflation have created dependence. Inadequate planning to generate employment and reduce dependence hinders development. The second dimension concerns citizens’ expectations of government institutions to address local issues (e.g., establishing libraries, sports complexes, and clinics), which are often unmet. Didari et al. (2019) similarly emphasized the importance of addressing government dependency and having a capable state to achieve comprehensive development.
Based on these findings, the following recommendations are proposed to address underdevelopment in Bilesavar:
- Promote social justice as a core component of developmental thinking, including valuing human capital, providing equitable opportunities, offering facilities, addressing psychological needs, recruiting based on merit, reducing deprivation, and creating conditions conducive to innovative, participatory, and technology-driven development.
- Enhance public services to establish a development-oriented trajectory, providing security for investment and appropriate budget allocation based on local potentials.
- Leverage cultural capacities through increased investment in tourism and handicrafts.
- Create new employment opportunities by identifying growth sectors, providing education, entrepreneurship training, and offering positions to elite and skilled individuals to prevent migration.
- Strengthen social, political, and economic participation through local governance, fostering initiative, creativity, and self-confidence among citizens.
- Employ capable local individuals in managerial positions.
- Address socio-cultural development barriers by respecting local traditions while promoting transformation and innovation through models that integrate influential elements of local culture.
- Utilize individual and collective creativity and encourage higher education and training to enhance development in the city.
Conclusion
Social capital, cultural capital, human capital, innovative attitudes and perceptions, acquisitive spirit, and government dependency are all related to the underdevelopment of Bilesavar city. Among these factors, government dependency and human capital have the greatest impact, while social capital and innovative attitudes have the least influence on the city’s underdevelopment.
Acknowledgments: No acknowledgments were reported by the authors.
Ethical Permission: No ethical approval was reported by the authors.
Conflict of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Author Contributions: Dolatkhah Gh (First Author), Principal Researcher/Introduction Writer (35%); Mirsardoo T (Second Author), Assistant Researcher/Data Analyst (30%); Adhami A (Third Author), Methodologist/Discussion Writer (20%).
Funding: This article is derived from the dissertation of Mr. Ghader Dolatkhaah, and all associated expenses were personally funded
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