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Received: 2021/12/1 | Accepted: 2021/12/23 | Published: 2022/02/27
Received: 2021/12/1 | Accepted: 2021/12/23 | Published: 2022/02/27
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Riki A, Karimian Bostani M, Miri G. The Role of Social Capital in the Physical Development of the Five Regions of Zahedan. GeoRes 2022; 37 (1) :39-47
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1- Department of Geography and Urban Planning, Zahedan Branch, Islamic Azad University, Zahedan, Iran
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Introduction
Social capital is a relatively new concept in the field of social sciences that has rapidly expanded its position into other domains such as medicine, psychology, economics, politics, urban planning, and related fields [Barati & Yazdanpanah, 2011; Ghaderi & Tagavi, 2013]. Social capital is measured through indicators such as social support, social networks, social participation, and trust, and a society in which these indicators are highly developed is considered to possess a high level of social capital [Amiri & Rezapour, 2015; Tavana, 2016]. Accordingly, social capital can be understood as an asset embedded in the everyday relationships among members of society such as neighbors, colleagues, friends, and others that generates positive outcomes [Najjarzadeh et al., 2017]. These outcomes include family well-being, strengthened neighborhood relations, and improved quality of life, as well as, at higher levels, economic efficiency and social dynamism [Hamdan et al., 2014].
Today, social capital is recognized as one of the key factors influencing the sustainability of settlements at the macro level (society), the meso level (institutions), and the micro level (households and individuals) [Khoshfar et al., 2013]. In this context, sustainable development emerges from social sustainability, and achieving sustainable development requires attention to social issues, through which the various dimensions of social sustainability are encompassed [Nastaran et al., 2013]. Many sociologists and urban planners, including Robert Misra, Sherry Arnstein, David Draxler, and others, argue that the most effective and fundamental strategy for success in development plans is the decentralization of urban management and planning, the formulation of plans based on participation, the enhancement of public trust, and, more broadly, the strengthening and expansion of social capital and its components [Azad et al., 2019].
Meanwhile, the expansion of urbanization and the emergence of new needs have shifted planning perspectives from a purely physical–spatial approach toward greater attention to the social dimensions of urban life. Influenced by these new needs and growing awareness, novel concepts have been introduced into the field of urban planning and development [Nikpour et al., 2015]. Social capital is among the key elements whose creation, preservation, and enrichment are considered fundamental objectives of sustainable urban development [Rahimi et al., 2020]. In this regard, measuring social capital in cities as part of the urban planning process reflects the level of mobility and dynamism of the social system and is recognized as a factor influencing the spatial and physical dimensions of the city. Through its capacity to generate synergy among urban residents, social capital can enhance planning efficiency and significantly contribute to the realization of sustainable urban development [Nikpour et al., 2015].
Identifying the capacities of social capital by evaluating core elements such as participation, cohesion, awareness, trust, relationships, and social ties among citizens not only leads to the formulation of programs aligned with the specific characteristics of the city but also serves as a guarantee for the more effective implementation of urban development plans [Zahedi et al., 2008]. In this context, physical development planning, in addition to being an effort to guide the evolution of the human living environment, also reflects the evolution of social life. Physical development seeks to guide social processes through spatial and physical planning. Therefore, directing social dynamics becomes possible through more effective utilization of space and the natural environment for human life. Consequently, physical development is related both to space and to society. Thus, physical development planning represents a search for the most desirable form of compatibility between space and society in favor of the community [Asgari & Estelaje, 2021].
Researchers have examined the impacts of social capital on urban development from various perspectives in existing studies. Moving toward comprehensive development requires specific prerequisites, foundations, and enabling contexts. Social capital undoubtedly acts as a facilitator of cooperation and participation and accelerates the achievement of development indicators. Studies conducted over recent decades indicate that social capital is a significant variable in explaining spatial economic and social disparities [Shalchi & Momivand, 2017].
Over the past several decades, the city of Zahedan has experienced rapid population growth, uneven urban expansion, increasing poverty, border-related constraints, and insufficient allocation of national and regional development plans. These factors have led to a decline in citizens’ quality of life and social justice, thereby highlighting more than ever the necessity of public participation, considered the city’s true asset, for achieving sustainable urban development. Urban areas of Zahedan, due to their specific conditions, have remained less developed in recent years, primarily because of inadequate attention to the fundamental role of citizen participation as a cornerstone of urban development. Most national and local development plans implemented in Zahedan have followed a top-down approach, which constitutes the main reason for their limited impact on the daily lives of residents. In such circumstances, citizens perceive themselves merely as spectators and do not experience tangible effects of these plans in their lives. In light of these considerations, the aim of the present study is to examine the role of social capital in the physical development of the five urban districts of Zahedan.
Methodology
This applied study adopted a quantitative–analytical approach and was conducted in 2021 across the five urban districts of Zahedan. From the population of Zahedan residents, reported as 672,589 according to the 2016 census [amar.org.ir, 2019], a sample of 384 individuals was selected using random sampling based on Cochran’s formula. In addition, 20 experts related to the research topic in the field of urban planning were selected through purposive sampling.
The required data were collected using a documentary–field approach (questionnaires and observation). A researcher-developed social capital questionnaire, designed based on a review of relevant literature and adapted to the characteristics of the study area, was employed alongside a physical development questionnaire drawn from prior studies [Montazer Alhajeh et al., 2018; Molaeihashjin et al., 2020; Samadi et al., 2020]. The indicators were operationalized as questionnaire items and presented accordingly. The face validity of the questionnaires was confirmed by experts. To assess reliability, Cronbach’s alpha was calculated, yielding values of 0.78 for the social capital questionnaire and 0.76 for the physical development questionnaire, both of which are considered acceptable.
Data analysis was performed using SPSS version 19. The analytical process comprised several stages. First, the Kolmogorov–Smirnov test was applied to examine the normality of social capital indicators. Next, factor analysis was conducted to assess the social capital indicators. Subsequently, Spearman’s correlation test was used to examine the relationship between social capital indicators and physical development. Thereafter, the FARAS model was employed to rank physical development indicators in Zahedan with an emphasis on social capital. Finally, spatial analysis of the five urban districts of Zahedan based on physical development was carried out using the FUZZY VIKOR model.
VIKOR which is derived from a Serbian term meaning multi-criteria optimization and compromise solution [Chatterjee et al., 2009] is a practical multi-criteria decision-making (MCDM) method with high efficiency in solving discrete problems [Opricovic & Tzeng, 2004]. This method is based on compromise programming, in which the compromise solution determines feasible solutions that are closest to the ideal solution and are achieved through consensus based on the decision-makers’ preferences [Rao, 2008]. In VIKOR, the emphasis is on ranking and selecting from a set of alternatives and determining compromise solutions for problems involving conflicting criteria [Chen & Wang, 2009].
The FARAS (Fuzzy ARAS) model, or Additive Ratio Assessment, is a relatively recent technique in the field of multi-criteria decision-making that has attracted increasing attention in recent years. In this method, the sum of weighted and normalized criteria values for each alternative, representing the condition of that alternative, is divided by the sum of weighted and normalized values of the optimal alternative. This ratio is referred to as the degree of optimality. Based on this degree, the alternatives are ranked [Hatefi et al., 2018].
Findings
Prior to examining the status of social capital indicators, their normality was assessed. The results of the Kolmogorov–Smirnov test indicated that all social capital indicators followed a normal distribution (p > 0.05); therefore, parametric analyses were applied. Subsequently, factor analysis results showed a KMO value of 0.65, and Bartlett’s test of sphericity was statistically significant (χ² = 196.625, p = 0.000), confirming the adequacy of the data for conducting factor analysis.
The findings revealed that, within the social networks and social support indicator, the highest rank was associated with increased frequency of visits with neighbors and acquaintances, while the lowest rank was related to the item concerning whom individuals provide assistance to. In the trust indicator, the highest rank corresponded to trust in neighbors, whereas the lowest rank was related to trust in institutions at different levels. In the dimension of civic participation, the highest rank was attributed to membership in local institutions, and the lowest rank to the level of information about organizations. Regarding social participation, the highest rank was associated with participation in religious activities and celebrations, while the lowest rank was related to the number of groups in which an individual holds membership. Finally, in the environmental factors indicator, the highest rank pertained to the sense of security in the neighborhood, whereas the lowest rank was associated with the availability of collective spaces.
The results of Pearson’s correlation analysis between the extracted factors and the physical development factor demonstrated a positive and statistically significant relationship (p < 0.05). These findings indicate that social capital indicators exert a strong influence on the level of physical development in the city of Zahedan.
Further analysis using the FARAS model showed that, among physical development indicators, focal activities and accessibility received the highest weights in relation to social capital, while indicators such as appropriate urban furniture, continuity and legibility received the lowest weights. This suggests that certain physical dimensions of the urban environment are more strongly associated with social capital than others.
Finally, spatial analysis of the five urban districts of Zahedan based on physical development influenced by social capital indicators was conducted using the fuzzy VIKOR model. The results indicated that District 1 ranked first, followed by District 5, District 2, and District 4, while District 3 ranked last in terms of physical development under the influence of social capital.
Discussion
The present study aimed to examine the role of social capital in the physical development of the five urban districts of Zahedan. The findings indicate that five factors including social networks and support, trust, environmental factors, civic participation, and social participation constitute the main determinants influencing the level of social capital in the five districts of Zahedan. Among the identified indicators, social networks and support ranked highest. This finding demonstrates that local networks and non-governmental organizations play a significant role in shaping the level of social capital among residents of Zahedan’s five districts and ultimately function as the key drivers of social capital in these areas.
To further contextualize the results within the specific conditions of the five districts, the correlation between the factors extracted through factor analysis and the main indicator (physical development) revealed a positive and statistically significant relationship. Social capital is a public asset formed through interaction and collective action. At the same time, all forms of capital within society can be likened to the building blocks of development, whose effectiveness depends on the binding agent of social capital. Therefore, social capital, as the foundation of physical development, must be strengthened and consolidated so that the structure of development can be built upon a solid and coherent base. Given that physical development is one of the core dimensions of urban sustainability, social capital plays a crucial role in shaping individuals’ perceptions of their relationships with one another and with their living environment. Accordingly, social capital and the physical development of Zahedan’s five districts exhibit a dialectical and positive relationship, mutually reinforcing and reproducing one another.
Moreover, the results showed that among the physical development indicators, focal activities were the most strongly influenced by social capital. Focal activities were characterized by items such as the presence of recreational and leisure spaces, accessibility and location along daily movement routes, and the availability of green spaces. Considering that Zahedan has a very low per capita green space, less than one square meter and approximately half a square meter per person, this figure is nearly one-twentieth of the average in other provincial capitals. Nevertheless, in recent years, alongside an increase in social capital across the city, priorities such as improving road asphalt conditions, renovating and rehabilitating green spaces, and enhancing the quality of activities have been pursued. These efforts have included the comprehensive renovation of older urban parks and the upgrading of major recreational areas through improvements in pathways and lighting systems, reflecting the influence of social capital on physical development initiatives.
In contrast, the continuity and legibility indicator exhibited the lowest level of influence from social capital. Continuity and legibility were defined by factors such as the clarity of spatial images in users’ minds, the presence of guiding elements, visual coherence, integration within the main urban structure, and attention to human scale. Urban spaces in Zahedan serve as settings for citizen presence and participation in collective life, and enhancing their quality can significantly increase urban vitality. However, field studies revealed that most indicators related to continuity and legibility were in an unfavorable condition, and residents experienced low levels of social interaction in public urban spaces. This situation resulted in reduced pedestrian presence in public areas.
Additionally, given that a considerable proportion of Zahedan’s residents spend much of their day working to address economic challenges, sometimes occupying nearly the entire day, nighttime has become an integral part of citizens’ leisure time. When economic pressures limit opportunities for participation during the day, evenings and nights provide the primary opportunity for citizens to engage in urban activities and social interactions. Consequently, the need to revitalize urban spaces at night has become increasingly evident, highlighting the importance of dynamic and continuous nighttime environments in creating suitable conditions for citizen activities and enhancing social capital.
Finally, the results of the spatial analysis of Zahedan’s five districts based on physical development with an emphasis on social capital revealed significant differences among the districts. The level of physical development varied considerably across the five districts, and these differences were evident both in individual social capital indicators and in physical development as an overall concept. This variation reflects differing degrees of influence exerted by social capital across urban fabrics and districts. Areas such as Districts 3 and 4 were less affected by social capital, meaning that the absence or weakness of social capital, particularly in these districts, has led to limitations such as relatively unfavorable physical development. In contrast, districts such as 1, 2, and 5 experienced greater benefits, including improved physical development outcomes for residents. Therefore, the effects of social capital on physical development were not uniform across Zahedan’s urban districts. The findings of the present study are consistent with those of previous research conducted by other scholars [Jalalian et al., 2014; Shahmoradi et al., 2014; KatilaVilar & Cartes, 2016; Guzhavina & Mekhova, 2018; Azad et al., 2019; Du et al., 2021; Riki et al., 2021].
Based on the results obtained, the following strategies are proposed:
Conclusion
The social networks formed in the city of Zahedan through participation in local associations, groups, and organizations have created channels for social capital and have contributed to physical development. In turn, these networks have fostered individual norms and reciprocal public cooperation across the five urban districts of Zahedan. Accordingly, improving social capital indicators in Zahedan plays a decisive role as one of the key factors influencing physical development and therefore warrants continued attention and systematic evaluation.
Acknowledgments: There are no acknowledgments to report.
Ethical Permission: There are no ethical approvals to report.
Conflict of Interest: This article is derived from the first author’s doctoral dissertation, conducted under the supervision of the second author and with the advisory support of the third author at the Islamic Azad University of Zahedan.
Author Contributions: Riki A (first author), Main Researcher/Discussion Writer (50%); Maryam Karimian Bostani (second author), Methodologist (25%); Miri Gh (third author), Methodologist (25%)
Funding: This research was conducted with the authors’ personal funding.
Social capital is a relatively new concept in the field of social sciences that has rapidly expanded its position into other domains such as medicine, psychology, economics, politics, urban planning, and related fields [Barati & Yazdanpanah, 2011; Ghaderi & Tagavi, 2013]. Social capital is measured through indicators such as social support, social networks, social participation, and trust, and a society in which these indicators are highly developed is considered to possess a high level of social capital [Amiri & Rezapour, 2015; Tavana, 2016]. Accordingly, social capital can be understood as an asset embedded in the everyday relationships among members of society such as neighbors, colleagues, friends, and others that generates positive outcomes [Najjarzadeh et al., 2017]. These outcomes include family well-being, strengthened neighborhood relations, and improved quality of life, as well as, at higher levels, economic efficiency and social dynamism [Hamdan et al., 2014].
Today, social capital is recognized as one of the key factors influencing the sustainability of settlements at the macro level (society), the meso level (institutions), and the micro level (households and individuals) [Khoshfar et al., 2013]. In this context, sustainable development emerges from social sustainability, and achieving sustainable development requires attention to social issues, through which the various dimensions of social sustainability are encompassed [Nastaran et al., 2013]. Many sociologists and urban planners, including Robert Misra, Sherry Arnstein, David Draxler, and others, argue that the most effective and fundamental strategy for success in development plans is the decentralization of urban management and planning, the formulation of plans based on participation, the enhancement of public trust, and, more broadly, the strengthening and expansion of social capital and its components [Azad et al., 2019].
Meanwhile, the expansion of urbanization and the emergence of new needs have shifted planning perspectives from a purely physical–spatial approach toward greater attention to the social dimensions of urban life. Influenced by these new needs and growing awareness, novel concepts have been introduced into the field of urban planning and development [Nikpour et al., 2015]. Social capital is among the key elements whose creation, preservation, and enrichment are considered fundamental objectives of sustainable urban development [Rahimi et al., 2020]. In this regard, measuring social capital in cities as part of the urban planning process reflects the level of mobility and dynamism of the social system and is recognized as a factor influencing the spatial and physical dimensions of the city. Through its capacity to generate synergy among urban residents, social capital can enhance planning efficiency and significantly contribute to the realization of sustainable urban development [Nikpour et al., 2015].
Identifying the capacities of social capital by evaluating core elements such as participation, cohesion, awareness, trust, relationships, and social ties among citizens not only leads to the formulation of programs aligned with the specific characteristics of the city but also serves as a guarantee for the more effective implementation of urban development plans [Zahedi et al., 2008]. In this context, physical development planning, in addition to being an effort to guide the evolution of the human living environment, also reflects the evolution of social life. Physical development seeks to guide social processes through spatial and physical planning. Therefore, directing social dynamics becomes possible through more effective utilization of space and the natural environment for human life. Consequently, physical development is related both to space and to society. Thus, physical development planning represents a search for the most desirable form of compatibility between space and society in favor of the community [Asgari & Estelaje, 2021].
Researchers have examined the impacts of social capital on urban development from various perspectives in existing studies. Moving toward comprehensive development requires specific prerequisites, foundations, and enabling contexts. Social capital undoubtedly acts as a facilitator of cooperation and participation and accelerates the achievement of development indicators. Studies conducted over recent decades indicate that social capital is a significant variable in explaining spatial economic and social disparities [Shalchi & Momivand, 2017].
Over the past several decades, the city of Zahedan has experienced rapid population growth, uneven urban expansion, increasing poverty, border-related constraints, and insufficient allocation of national and regional development plans. These factors have led to a decline in citizens’ quality of life and social justice, thereby highlighting more than ever the necessity of public participation, considered the city’s true asset, for achieving sustainable urban development. Urban areas of Zahedan, due to their specific conditions, have remained less developed in recent years, primarily because of inadequate attention to the fundamental role of citizen participation as a cornerstone of urban development. Most national and local development plans implemented in Zahedan have followed a top-down approach, which constitutes the main reason for their limited impact on the daily lives of residents. In such circumstances, citizens perceive themselves merely as spectators and do not experience tangible effects of these plans in their lives. In light of these considerations, the aim of the present study is to examine the role of social capital in the physical development of the five urban districts of Zahedan.
Methodology
This applied study adopted a quantitative–analytical approach and was conducted in 2021 across the five urban districts of Zahedan. From the population of Zahedan residents, reported as 672,589 according to the 2016 census [amar.org.ir, 2019], a sample of 384 individuals was selected using random sampling based on Cochran’s formula. In addition, 20 experts related to the research topic in the field of urban planning were selected through purposive sampling.
The required data were collected using a documentary–field approach (questionnaires and observation). A researcher-developed social capital questionnaire, designed based on a review of relevant literature and adapted to the characteristics of the study area, was employed alongside a physical development questionnaire drawn from prior studies [Montazer Alhajeh et al., 2018; Molaeihashjin et al., 2020; Samadi et al., 2020]. The indicators were operationalized as questionnaire items and presented accordingly. The face validity of the questionnaires was confirmed by experts. To assess reliability, Cronbach’s alpha was calculated, yielding values of 0.78 for the social capital questionnaire and 0.76 for the physical development questionnaire, both of which are considered acceptable.
Data analysis was performed using SPSS version 19. The analytical process comprised several stages. First, the Kolmogorov–Smirnov test was applied to examine the normality of social capital indicators. Next, factor analysis was conducted to assess the social capital indicators. Subsequently, Spearman’s correlation test was used to examine the relationship between social capital indicators and physical development. Thereafter, the FARAS model was employed to rank physical development indicators in Zahedan with an emphasis on social capital. Finally, spatial analysis of the five urban districts of Zahedan based on physical development was carried out using the FUZZY VIKOR model.
VIKOR which is derived from a Serbian term meaning multi-criteria optimization and compromise solution [Chatterjee et al., 2009] is a practical multi-criteria decision-making (MCDM) method with high efficiency in solving discrete problems [Opricovic & Tzeng, 2004]. This method is based on compromise programming, in which the compromise solution determines feasible solutions that are closest to the ideal solution and are achieved through consensus based on the decision-makers’ preferences [Rao, 2008]. In VIKOR, the emphasis is on ranking and selecting from a set of alternatives and determining compromise solutions for problems involving conflicting criteria [Chen & Wang, 2009].
The FARAS (Fuzzy ARAS) model, or Additive Ratio Assessment, is a relatively recent technique in the field of multi-criteria decision-making that has attracted increasing attention in recent years. In this method, the sum of weighted and normalized criteria values for each alternative, representing the condition of that alternative, is divided by the sum of weighted and normalized values of the optimal alternative. This ratio is referred to as the degree of optimality. Based on this degree, the alternatives are ranked [Hatefi et al., 2018].
Findings
Prior to examining the status of social capital indicators, their normality was assessed. The results of the Kolmogorov–Smirnov test indicated that all social capital indicators followed a normal distribution (p > 0.05); therefore, parametric analyses were applied. Subsequently, factor analysis results showed a KMO value of 0.65, and Bartlett’s test of sphericity was statistically significant (χ² = 196.625, p = 0.000), confirming the adequacy of the data for conducting factor analysis.
The findings revealed that, within the social networks and social support indicator, the highest rank was associated with increased frequency of visits with neighbors and acquaintances, while the lowest rank was related to the item concerning whom individuals provide assistance to. In the trust indicator, the highest rank corresponded to trust in neighbors, whereas the lowest rank was related to trust in institutions at different levels. In the dimension of civic participation, the highest rank was attributed to membership in local institutions, and the lowest rank to the level of information about organizations. Regarding social participation, the highest rank was associated with participation in religious activities and celebrations, while the lowest rank was related to the number of groups in which an individual holds membership. Finally, in the environmental factors indicator, the highest rank pertained to the sense of security in the neighborhood, whereas the lowest rank was associated with the availability of collective spaces.
The results of Pearson’s correlation analysis between the extracted factors and the physical development factor demonstrated a positive and statistically significant relationship (p < 0.05). These findings indicate that social capital indicators exert a strong influence on the level of physical development in the city of Zahedan.
Further analysis using the FARAS model showed that, among physical development indicators, focal activities and accessibility received the highest weights in relation to social capital, while indicators such as appropriate urban furniture, continuity and legibility received the lowest weights. This suggests that certain physical dimensions of the urban environment are more strongly associated with social capital than others.
Finally, spatial analysis of the five urban districts of Zahedan based on physical development influenced by social capital indicators was conducted using the fuzzy VIKOR model. The results indicated that District 1 ranked first, followed by District 5, District 2, and District 4, while District 3 ranked last in terms of physical development under the influence of social capital.
Discussion
The present study aimed to examine the role of social capital in the physical development of the five urban districts of Zahedan. The findings indicate that five factors including social networks and support, trust, environmental factors, civic participation, and social participation constitute the main determinants influencing the level of social capital in the five districts of Zahedan. Among the identified indicators, social networks and support ranked highest. This finding demonstrates that local networks and non-governmental organizations play a significant role in shaping the level of social capital among residents of Zahedan’s five districts and ultimately function as the key drivers of social capital in these areas.
To further contextualize the results within the specific conditions of the five districts, the correlation between the factors extracted through factor analysis and the main indicator (physical development) revealed a positive and statistically significant relationship. Social capital is a public asset formed through interaction and collective action. At the same time, all forms of capital within society can be likened to the building blocks of development, whose effectiveness depends on the binding agent of social capital. Therefore, social capital, as the foundation of physical development, must be strengthened and consolidated so that the structure of development can be built upon a solid and coherent base. Given that physical development is one of the core dimensions of urban sustainability, social capital plays a crucial role in shaping individuals’ perceptions of their relationships with one another and with their living environment. Accordingly, social capital and the physical development of Zahedan’s five districts exhibit a dialectical and positive relationship, mutually reinforcing and reproducing one another.
Moreover, the results showed that among the physical development indicators, focal activities were the most strongly influenced by social capital. Focal activities were characterized by items such as the presence of recreational and leisure spaces, accessibility and location along daily movement routes, and the availability of green spaces. Considering that Zahedan has a very low per capita green space, less than one square meter and approximately half a square meter per person, this figure is nearly one-twentieth of the average in other provincial capitals. Nevertheless, in recent years, alongside an increase in social capital across the city, priorities such as improving road asphalt conditions, renovating and rehabilitating green spaces, and enhancing the quality of activities have been pursued. These efforts have included the comprehensive renovation of older urban parks and the upgrading of major recreational areas through improvements in pathways and lighting systems, reflecting the influence of social capital on physical development initiatives.
In contrast, the continuity and legibility indicator exhibited the lowest level of influence from social capital. Continuity and legibility were defined by factors such as the clarity of spatial images in users’ minds, the presence of guiding elements, visual coherence, integration within the main urban structure, and attention to human scale. Urban spaces in Zahedan serve as settings for citizen presence and participation in collective life, and enhancing their quality can significantly increase urban vitality. However, field studies revealed that most indicators related to continuity and legibility were in an unfavorable condition, and residents experienced low levels of social interaction in public urban spaces. This situation resulted in reduced pedestrian presence in public areas.
Additionally, given that a considerable proportion of Zahedan’s residents spend much of their day working to address economic challenges, sometimes occupying nearly the entire day, nighttime has become an integral part of citizens’ leisure time. When economic pressures limit opportunities for participation during the day, evenings and nights provide the primary opportunity for citizens to engage in urban activities and social interactions. Consequently, the need to revitalize urban spaces at night has become increasingly evident, highlighting the importance of dynamic and continuous nighttime environments in creating suitable conditions for citizen activities and enhancing social capital.
Finally, the results of the spatial analysis of Zahedan’s five districts based on physical development with an emphasis on social capital revealed significant differences among the districts. The level of physical development varied considerably across the five districts, and these differences were evident both in individual social capital indicators and in physical development as an overall concept. This variation reflects differing degrees of influence exerted by social capital across urban fabrics and districts. Areas such as Districts 3 and 4 were less affected by social capital, meaning that the absence or weakness of social capital, particularly in these districts, has led to limitations such as relatively unfavorable physical development. In contrast, districts such as 1, 2, and 5 experienced greater benefits, including improved physical development outcomes for residents. Therefore, the effects of social capital on physical development were not uniform across Zahedan’s urban districts. The findings of the present study are consistent with those of previous research conducted by other scholars [Jalalian et al., 2014; Shahmoradi et al., 2014; KatilaVilar & Cartes, 2016; Guzhavina & Mekhova, 2018; Azad et al., 2019; Du et al., 2021; Riki et al., 2021].
Based on the results obtained, the following strategies are proposed:
- Providing accurate and transparent information on urban issues to raise public awareness among Zahedan’s residents and to motivate greater cooperation and participation;
- Given that District 4 ranked lower in terms of both social capital and physical development compared to other districts, enhancing physical development capacity in this area could contribute to sustainability by activating social capital;
- Establishing mechanisms for direct communication between citizens and governmental organizations, along with public participation and consultation in the planning and implementation of urban construction and physical development projects;
- Developing participatory programs between urban organizations and citizens to foster increased participation and intra-group interaction. Greater utilization of latent social capacities and resources can therefore serve as a guarantee for the physical development of Zahedan.
Conclusion
The social networks formed in the city of Zahedan through participation in local associations, groups, and organizations have created channels for social capital and have contributed to physical development. In turn, these networks have fostered individual norms and reciprocal public cooperation across the five urban districts of Zahedan. Accordingly, improving social capital indicators in Zahedan plays a decisive role as one of the key factors influencing physical development and therefore warrants continued attention and systematic evaluation.
Acknowledgments: There are no acknowledgments to report.
Ethical Permission: There are no ethical approvals to report.
Conflict of Interest: This article is derived from the first author’s doctoral dissertation, conducted under the supervision of the second author and with the advisory support of the third author at the Islamic Azad University of Zahedan.
Author Contributions: Riki A (first author), Main Researcher/Discussion Writer (50%); Maryam Karimian Bostani (second author), Methodologist (25%); Miri Gh (third author), Methodologist (25%)
Funding: This research was conducted with the authors’ personal funding.
Keywords:
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