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GeoRes 2023, 38(4): 549-558 |
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Received: 2023/11/16 | Accepted: 2023/12/18 | Published: 2023/12/29
Received: 2023/11/16 | Accepted: 2023/12/18 | Published: 2023/12/29
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Mehri Gharabolia B, Haghlesan M, Saghafi A. Examining the Role of Urban Design According to the Components of Subjective Perception and Its impact on the Presence of Citizens. GeoRes 2023; 38 (4) :549-558
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1- Department of Architecture and Urban Planning, Ilkhchi Branch, Islamic Azad University, Ilkhchi, Iran
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Introduction
Evaluative maps, due to their capacity to measure acceptable boundaries, highlight significant and insignificant elements, and capture the meanings and emotions associated with the environment, are among the most effective tools for recording citizens’ mental perceptions as well as examining their environmental experiences. Assessing people’s preferences and expectations regarding their surroundings can guide planners, designers, and even urban managers toward creating environments that foster user satisfaction. This approach stems from the developmental shift initiated by Lynch in the 1960s [Lynch, 2016] a paradigmatic transition from an “aesthetic” perspective, influenced by the City Beautiful movement, toward a “psychological” and perceptual-cognitive view of the city. Indeed, this marked a major revolution in urban design, later completed through the introduction of evaluative dimensions by Jack L. Nasar in the 1990s [Nasar, 1997]. The term evaluative maps was first introduced as an extension of Lynch’s cognitive maps, aiming to incorporate the dimension of environmental evaluation an aspect initially overlooked by Lynch. The present study seeks to establish a conceptual framework by reviewing theoretical approaches to urban image and perception in order to identify the factors and criteria that enhance citizens’ evaluative mental image of urban spaces. In this regard, composite maps, along with the “liked” and “disliked” areas indicated by citizens, provide a foundation for defining evaluative mental image criteria.
Human beings, as the primary agents of urban spatial dynamics, require an appropriate setting to participate effectively in urban spaces. Meeting social needs and providing opportunities for social experiences necessitate both physical spaces and spatial anchors. Public space, therefore, represents a critical capacity for addressing this fundamental dimension of human life in urban societies. Today, however, citizens spend most of their time in private spaces, which continue to expand, while public spaces have increasingly been reduced to transitional passages between private domains. Multiple factors such as the tendency toward mechanized lifestyles, the widespread use of vehicles, the dominance of automobiles in shaping the urban landscape, the acceleration of mobility, people’s disengagement from public spaces, and the neglect of the social, cultural, and identity values embedded in such spaces have diminished the significance and role of public spaces in different urban scales. As a result, cities have failed to adequately meet human needs as inherently social beings, and many perceive the city merely as a route for passage.
Evaluative maps serve as reflections of citizens’ collective evaluative mental images of the city. These collective perceptions are essentially overlays of numerous individual mental maps, yet distinct public images are often produced by different groups [Rahimi et al., 2017]. Overall, it can be argued that meanings can be predicted through evaluative mental images. Although subcultures may vary, visual preferences tend to show striking similarities. Just as urban legibility or imageability helps residents navigate, evaluative meanings likewise shape people’s movements within a city. They influence choices such as residential location, shopping and leisure destinations, and transportation routes [Rapoport, 1990]. Of course, the physical appearance of places cannot determine every single behavior in every situation for example, a location associated with a negative event does not prevent individuals from commuting to work. Other factors, including customs, costs, and familiarity with spaces, also affect decision-making. Nonetheless, by offering feasible alternatives, people can be drawn to attractive places and diverted from less appealing ones. A well-designed urban form should not only attract individuals but also encourage them to return willingly and with a sense of attachment [Tayyebi & Zekavat, 2017].
The physical dimensions of urban spaces have a profound impact on human behavior. Poorly designed environments often generate inappropriate or abnormal behaviors. Thus, to achieve higher objectives, one of the first aspects that must be addressed is the physical environment. Accordingly, this study further explores specific aspects such as lighting, temperature, sound, air quality, spatial layout and surfaces, urban furniture, and color.
Urban space serves as the most important setting for public life, as it provides the primary ground for shaping personality and comprehensive social development. The heavy dependence of presence on environmental conditions imposes significant responsibilities on all members of urban societies. Situations in which individuals interact with their environments whether intentionally or unintentionallymexert profound influence on them. This raises critical questions: Do the contemporary settings in which individuals find themselves nurture committed thinkers, great artists, and scientists? Or do they suppress such potentials and limit the full realization of human reasoning and creativity? [Seif, 2015]. Recognizing that presence largely depends on events individuals encounter in their environments allows us to regard presence as an analyzable and interpretable phenomenon rather than a purely spontaneous occurrence. These conditions are observable, controllable, and modifiable, making it possible to establish correlations between them and behavioral changes. Presence plays a fundamental role throughout human life, from birth to death, and is considered one of the most valuable human achievements [Sharifi, 2008]. As one of the essential functions of urban spaces, presence raises key questions: What is its place in the city? Is it exclusive to visitors, while urban managers merely administer? Kimble’s definition remains central here, describing presence as a relatively enduring engagement in potential behavior strengthened through practice. Thus, urban managers and visitors emerge as the two pivotal poles of urban spaces, with managers responsible for motivating, guiding, and encouraging citizens’ presence. Consequently, the quality and capacity of urban managers directly reflect the quality of presence [Aram et al., 2018]. Furthermore, imitation plays a crucial role in presence: individuals can acquire behaviors simply through observation, without direct engagement or practice. Visitors continuously absorb the statements, attitudes, and postures of others, often unconsciously. Every behavior manifested by one visitor can act as a model, leading to the transmission of both positive and negative behaviors.
The concept of the mental image was first introduced by Tolman in 1932. In critique of the stimulus–response theory, Tolman argued that individuals construct mental representations of environmental cues and indicators within a cognitive map, shaped by their beliefs, values, attitudes, and contextual conditions, which they later utilize when motivation and opportunity arise [Tolman, 1948]. Lynch later adopted the concept of imageability to describe urban legibility, framing the mental image as a composite of the form, function, and meaning of a space as retained in memory [Lynch, 2016]. A mental image is thus both an immediate emotional impression and a product of past experiences. Beyond spatial elements, mental images also encompass cognitive aspects (beliefs, values, attitudes), emotional aspects (positive or negative feelings toward phenomena), and behavioral aspects [Tayyebi & Zekavat, 2017]. Given that understanding the development of mental images requires longitudinal analysis [Lynch, 2016], temporal dimensions must also be considered. In other words, mental images emerge from the interaction between people, space, and time.
Visitors’ mental images, reflected in their drawings, represent windows into their thoughts and emotions. Such drawings, while attempts to depict reality, differ from reality itself, as they are filtered through personal perception. Drawing skills influence how effectively mental models are represented, and limited skills may lead to misinterpretation. Moreover, cultural differences affect the representational details of drawings, though research indicates that common themes can often be identified. As visitors mature, gender differences in symbolic representation and reference points become more evident. While many drawings can be interpreted based on physical similarity to the real world, they also reveal deeper meanings for example, the exaggeration of certain elements highlights their perceived importance. Emotional and affective aspects play an additional role, though beyond the scope of this study. For the purposes of this research, particular attention has been given to indicators such as naturalness, maintenance, spaciousness, architectural value, and order, along with environmental characteristics of urban spaces, including lighting, temperature, sound, air quality, surfaces, furniture, and color.
Methodology
The present study is applied in terms of purpose and was conducted in 2023 across four pedestrian pathways in the city of Tabriz. The selected case studies include Tarbiat, Valiasr, Ferdows, and Shahriar passages, chosen through cluster sampling from among the pedestrian streets of Tabriz. The study aims to explore an urban design model based on the components of evaluative mental imagery.
From a methodological standpoint, the research adopted a convergent design within the framework of mixed-methods research. The four primary designs in mixed-methods research are convergent (triangulation), embedded, explanatory, and exploratory. The purpose of the convergent design is to obtain diverse yet complementary data on a single issue, thereby ensuring a comprehensive understanding of the research problem. This design is particularly used when the researcher intends to directly compare or contrast quantitative statistical results with qualitative findings, or to extend and validate quantitative results through qualitative data.
Following a realist approach, this study employed a retroduction strategy. Retroduction, which is based on a cyclical or iterative logic, begins with an observed order but seeks a different type of explanation by uncovering the underlying structures or real mechanisms responsible for generating the observed patterns [Blaikie, 2009].
The primary research instrument was a researcher-designed questionnaire. To determine the factors influencing citizens’ willingness to be present in urban spaces, the study drew on the literature and key theoretical perspectives in the field. Based on these, indicators and components were identified, each operationalized through items in a 40-question survey. For content validity assessment, the initial version of the questionnaire was distributed among 25 urban studies experts, selected via purposive sampling. After incorporating their feedback, revisions were made, and the revised questionnaire was redistributed to the same group. Following expert validation, the number of items was reduced to 35. The reliability of the instrument was assessed using Cronbach’s alpha, which yielded a coefficient of 0.81.
The statistical population consisted of pedestrians in the selected Tabriz pathways. Using Cochran’s formula and a 10% error level, the sample size was determined to be 100 respondents, with each pathway accounting for 25 questionnaires. Sampling was conducted using random cluster sampling, where the clusters corresponded to the four main pedestrian pathways, and respondents within each cluster were randomly selected. The selection of representative urban landmarks was based on the inclusion of dominant characteristics of Tabriz pedestrian pathways, with an emphasis on maintaining balanced context-based functions.
The research process proceeded in several stages: employing scientific foundations of urban design, evaluative mental imagery, and citizens’ presence; extracting a conceptual and integrative model from these elements; estimating suitable criteria and indicators; designing the associated questionnaire; and finally, collecting responses from pathway users to analyze variables related to visual data and performance-oriented efficiency. The collected data provided the basis for proposing an urban design model grounded in evaluative mental imagery, ultimately leading to a performance-oriented architectural framework consistent with proposed strategies and policies. The core principle in shaping this model was the enhancement of citizens’ presence.
The quantitative data were derived from analyses of citizens’ presence in Tabriz pedestrian pathways. The research thus adopted a mixed quantitative–qualitative approach. In the quantitative phase, data collection was carried out through the questionnaire, with statistical analysis performed using Pearson’s correlation test in SPSS v.23. In the qualitative phase, field observations were employed. This integrated approach enabled a comprehensive and multidimensional evaluation of urban design, based on the components of evaluative mental imagery, across the four selected pedestrian pathways in Tabriz.
Findings
In the initial phase of the study, and within the qualitative stage, the literature on urban design, urban spaces, and mental imagery was reviewed. The theoretical exploration concerning evaluative mental imagery revealed that mental imagery originates from citizens’ satisfaction. This satisfaction consists of two dimensions: first, the extent to which citizens enter an environment, spend time in it, and the effort they invest; and second, the ways in which they allocate their time to the environment and the opportunities for presence that are organized to encourage participation in and benefit from environmental activities. A variety of factors influence citizens’ willingness to engage in urban spaces, some of which are cognitive and others non-cognitive.
The primary objective of this research was to examine the influence of both cognitive and non-cognitive factors on citizens’ presence. Nevertheless, a review of previous studies indicated that research on mental imagery and the impact of its components on presence has been scarce. Urban spaces are among the most significant informal yet influential structures in fostering a sense of joy and engagement, and are thus regarded as crucial factors affecting collective presence. Accordingly, elements such as citizens’ perceptions and attitudes, spatial form and location, and their interactions with the structural components of space emerge as significant spatial variables. Given the undeniable role of environmental mechanisms in enhancing citizens’ presence, this study further investigated physical components that could positively shape their evaluative mental imagery.
Subsequently, the research turned to the dimensions of satisfaction with urban spaces. Environmental satisfaction involves a subjective evaluation of both the quality and the objective characteristics of a given space, reflecting the extent to which it meets residents’ expectations and needs. Objective (quantitative) criteria are not only observable but also measurable and generally interpreted in similar ways across individuals. They are typically assessed through direct observation and field studies.
To identify the most critical physical components influencing presence, the literature on environmental physical factors and their impact on motivation and willingness to engage was analyzed. These criteria were later consolidated and categorized, and based on expert consensus, the most important factors were identified.
Quantitative Analysis
Respondents, drawn from different time periods, were asked about factors of legibility, vitality, and evaluative mental imagery, as well as environmental attributes from both subjective and design perspectives. Thirty survey questions were posed, covering urban design components such as nature, sound, light, color, and decoration, along with subjective dimensions including flexibility, legibility, environmental comfort, proportion, and visual perspective. Each of these was assessed in relation to presence-related constructs: legibility, vitality, and mental imagery.
Pearson correlation test results confirmed significant positive associations between urban design components (nature, sound, light, color, and decoration) and citizens’ perceptions of legibility, vitality, and evaluative mental imagery in the studied pedestrian pathways. Likewise, subjective factors (flexibility, legibility, environmental comfort, proportion, and visual perspective) were also positively and significantly correlated with these presence-related constructs.
The Kolmogorov–Smirnov test and skewness-kurtosis indices were used to test data normality. Findings indicated that all components followed a normal (or near-normal) distribution, as significance values exceeded 0.05 (p > 0.05) and skewness/kurtosis values fell within the acceptable range (−2 to +2). Accordingly, parametric tests such as Pearson correlation were deemed appropriate.
Overall, results demonstrated that all urban design and subjective factors were validated by citizens, albeit with varying degrees of influence. The following summarizes each factor:
The GOF (Goodness of Fit) index in PLS served as a practical measure for assessing overall model validity, operating similarly to fit indices in covariance-based approaches. Values closer to 1 indicate better fit, with thresholds above 0.36 suggesting adequate model quality.
Results revealed an R² of 0.85 for citizens’ willingness to be present, representing a desirable explanatory power. This suggests that the physical environment accounted for a substantial proportion of the variance across material, mental, and symbolic dimensions of space. In sum, the findings indicate that presence explains approximately 85% of the variance in quality of life.
Discussion
The present study sought to identify the factors and criteria influencing the enhancement of citizens’ perception and mental imagery of urban spaces. The research involved multiple variables, including components of evaluative mental imagery and satisfaction. The satisfaction-related factors were further categorized into subjective and urban design dimensions, while presence-related variables were classified into legibility, vitality, and mental imagery.
According to the findings, among the subjective factors, the strongest influence on citizens’ presence was attributed to the dimension of proportion (0.89), whereas among the urban design factors, nature (0.87) emerged as the most influential. With regard to presence, mental imagery ranked first, followed by legibility and vitality, respectively. Thus, the prioritization process indicated that initial interventions should focus on skillfully manipulating the dimensions of proportion and nature, which exerted significant effects on enhancing mental imagery (0.91 and 0.88, respectively). Subsequently, other priorities were extracted and categorized. Regarding the dimensions of presence, mental imagery (0.93) was identified as the highest priority, followed by legibility (0.87) and vitality (0.75).
In addressing public values, enhancing evaluative mental imagery can align places more closely with human purposes, thereby influencing citizens’ identity, health, and well-being. Physical appearance also shapes functionality. Our mental or cognitive imagery of events and values directly affects behavior; when a place is perceived as more attractive or desirable compared to others, people are naturally more inclined to visit it. Diverse physical forms convey varying meanings within activities, and different values can align with different purposes. For example, individuals may value excitement in recreational settings, whereas in therapeutic contexts, excitement is unnecessary. Similarly, some residents may appreciate spaces with prestigious appearances, while others may not. Public places that create an intimate and welcoming atmosphere are often highly valued. In this regard, visual character can significantly influence the behavioral meanings embedded within activities.
Consistent with these findings, Vahdat and Sajadzadeh (2016) emphasize the importance of physical components, followed by social, semantic, and environmental factors, as the most influential dimensions affecting citizens’ presence. Similarly, Khakzand et al. (2014) highlighted significant associations between factors such as influence, unity, coherence, place attachment, diversity, and attractiveness in urban design and citizens’ perceptibility. Furthermore, Montague (2015) found that artistic and graphic elements, when integrated into urban spaces, can attract people, foster community presence, and reinforce vitality and local identity.
Different places serve varying purposes and therefore necessitate distinct environmental characters. For instance, a neighborhood park, if designed to encourage interaction, can better fulfill its role, whereas waiting areas may function more effectively if interaction is not encouraged. Other environmental characters such as intimacy, privacy, legibility, simplicity, and adaptability can influence the performance of places. Ultimately, satisfactory performance depends largely on the atmosphere of a given space. Learning how to design visual features that affect diverse social and psychological outcomes such as those discussed earlier can be particularly valuable. Empirical studies can further explore the relationship between specific visual attributes and social-psychological objectives. One example is William Whyte’s (1980) study of Paley Park, which featured a formal entrance separating it from the street and neighborhood. Despite this, the park was perceived as intimate and integrated into its surroundings. Its defined entrance, adjacent food vendors, seating areas, and rear waterfall, combined with a simple and legible layout, rendered it highly comprehensible. Although Paley Park accommodated diverse activities, its ability to create a satisfying atmosphere was central to its overall appeal.
In sum, citizens’ presence was found to be most strongly associated with three dimensions: mental imagery, legibility, and vitality, respectively. Incorporating the considerations identified in this study, along with their prioritization, can enhance these dimensions and ultimately improve overall presence. Among the case studies, Tarbiat Pedestrian Path emerged as the most successful walkway in Tabriz due to its exceptional level of presence. Following this, Valiasr Path was identified as another successful urban space, offering positive emotional experiences. Ferdows Path functioned as a complementary recreational space adjacent to the larger Tabriz leisure complex, providing positive experiences and earning favorable evaluations. Similarly, Shahriar Path served as a complementary entrance space to the Grand Bazaar of Tabriz, reflecting its religious and gateway-like character.
This study faced several limitations, most notably time and financial constraints that restricted the expansion of the sample size and the number of pedestrian pathways investigated. Expanding the scope of analysis would not only improve the precision and generalizability of findings but also facilitate the identification of barriers and strategies for enhancing citizens’ mental imagery of urban spaces.
Conclusion
Overall, the pedestrian pathways of Tabriz were evaluated positively by both men and women. However, women, due to attributing greater significance to the concept of presence, were more strongly influenced by these pathways and found them comparatively more attractive.
Acknowledgment: None declared by the authors.
Ethical Permission: None declared by the authors.
Conflict of Interest: This research is derived from the dissertation of the first author, supervised by the second author and advised by the third author.
Authors’ Contributions: Mehri Gharaboia B (First Author): Introduction Writer/Methodologist/Discussion Writer (35%); Haghlesan M (Second Author): Discussion Writer/Introduction Writer (35%); Saghafi A (Third Author): Introduction Writer/Discussion Writer (30%)
Funding: None declared by the authors
Evaluative maps, due to their capacity to measure acceptable boundaries, highlight significant and insignificant elements, and capture the meanings and emotions associated with the environment, are among the most effective tools for recording citizens’ mental perceptions as well as examining their environmental experiences. Assessing people’s preferences and expectations regarding their surroundings can guide planners, designers, and even urban managers toward creating environments that foster user satisfaction. This approach stems from the developmental shift initiated by Lynch in the 1960s [Lynch, 2016] a paradigmatic transition from an “aesthetic” perspective, influenced by the City Beautiful movement, toward a “psychological” and perceptual-cognitive view of the city. Indeed, this marked a major revolution in urban design, later completed through the introduction of evaluative dimensions by Jack L. Nasar in the 1990s [Nasar, 1997]. The term evaluative maps was first introduced as an extension of Lynch’s cognitive maps, aiming to incorporate the dimension of environmental evaluation an aspect initially overlooked by Lynch. The present study seeks to establish a conceptual framework by reviewing theoretical approaches to urban image and perception in order to identify the factors and criteria that enhance citizens’ evaluative mental image of urban spaces. In this regard, composite maps, along with the “liked” and “disliked” areas indicated by citizens, provide a foundation for defining evaluative mental image criteria.
Human beings, as the primary agents of urban spatial dynamics, require an appropriate setting to participate effectively in urban spaces. Meeting social needs and providing opportunities for social experiences necessitate both physical spaces and spatial anchors. Public space, therefore, represents a critical capacity for addressing this fundamental dimension of human life in urban societies. Today, however, citizens spend most of their time in private spaces, which continue to expand, while public spaces have increasingly been reduced to transitional passages between private domains. Multiple factors such as the tendency toward mechanized lifestyles, the widespread use of vehicles, the dominance of automobiles in shaping the urban landscape, the acceleration of mobility, people’s disengagement from public spaces, and the neglect of the social, cultural, and identity values embedded in such spaces have diminished the significance and role of public spaces in different urban scales. As a result, cities have failed to adequately meet human needs as inherently social beings, and many perceive the city merely as a route for passage.
Evaluative maps serve as reflections of citizens’ collective evaluative mental images of the city. These collective perceptions are essentially overlays of numerous individual mental maps, yet distinct public images are often produced by different groups [Rahimi et al., 2017]. Overall, it can be argued that meanings can be predicted through evaluative mental images. Although subcultures may vary, visual preferences tend to show striking similarities. Just as urban legibility or imageability helps residents navigate, evaluative meanings likewise shape people’s movements within a city. They influence choices such as residential location, shopping and leisure destinations, and transportation routes [Rapoport, 1990]. Of course, the physical appearance of places cannot determine every single behavior in every situation for example, a location associated with a negative event does not prevent individuals from commuting to work. Other factors, including customs, costs, and familiarity with spaces, also affect decision-making. Nonetheless, by offering feasible alternatives, people can be drawn to attractive places and diverted from less appealing ones. A well-designed urban form should not only attract individuals but also encourage them to return willingly and with a sense of attachment [Tayyebi & Zekavat, 2017].
The physical dimensions of urban spaces have a profound impact on human behavior. Poorly designed environments often generate inappropriate or abnormal behaviors. Thus, to achieve higher objectives, one of the first aspects that must be addressed is the physical environment. Accordingly, this study further explores specific aspects such as lighting, temperature, sound, air quality, spatial layout and surfaces, urban furniture, and color.
Urban space serves as the most important setting for public life, as it provides the primary ground for shaping personality and comprehensive social development. The heavy dependence of presence on environmental conditions imposes significant responsibilities on all members of urban societies. Situations in which individuals interact with their environments whether intentionally or unintentionallymexert profound influence on them. This raises critical questions: Do the contemporary settings in which individuals find themselves nurture committed thinkers, great artists, and scientists? Or do they suppress such potentials and limit the full realization of human reasoning and creativity? [Seif, 2015]. Recognizing that presence largely depends on events individuals encounter in their environments allows us to regard presence as an analyzable and interpretable phenomenon rather than a purely spontaneous occurrence. These conditions are observable, controllable, and modifiable, making it possible to establish correlations between them and behavioral changes. Presence plays a fundamental role throughout human life, from birth to death, and is considered one of the most valuable human achievements [Sharifi, 2008]. As one of the essential functions of urban spaces, presence raises key questions: What is its place in the city? Is it exclusive to visitors, while urban managers merely administer? Kimble’s definition remains central here, describing presence as a relatively enduring engagement in potential behavior strengthened through practice. Thus, urban managers and visitors emerge as the two pivotal poles of urban spaces, with managers responsible for motivating, guiding, and encouraging citizens’ presence. Consequently, the quality and capacity of urban managers directly reflect the quality of presence [Aram et al., 2018]. Furthermore, imitation plays a crucial role in presence: individuals can acquire behaviors simply through observation, without direct engagement or practice. Visitors continuously absorb the statements, attitudes, and postures of others, often unconsciously. Every behavior manifested by one visitor can act as a model, leading to the transmission of both positive and negative behaviors.
The concept of the mental image was first introduced by Tolman in 1932. In critique of the stimulus–response theory, Tolman argued that individuals construct mental representations of environmental cues and indicators within a cognitive map, shaped by their beliefs, values, attitudes, and contextual conditions, which they later utilize when motivation and opportunity arise [Tolman, 1948]. Lynch later adopted the concept of imageability to describe urban legibility, framing the mental image as a composite of the form, function, and meaning of a space as retained in memory [Lynch, 2016]. A mental image is thus both an immediate emotional impression and a product of past experiences. Beyond spatial elements, mental images also encompass cognitive aspects (beliefs, values, attitudes), emotional aspects (positive or negative feelings toward phenomena), and behavioral aspects [Tayyebi & Zekavat, 2017]. Given that understanding the development of mental images requires longitudinal analysis [Lynch, 2016], temporal dimensions must also be considered. In other words, mental images emerge from the interaction between people, space, and time.
Visitors’ mental images, reflected in their drawings, represent windows into their thoughts and emotions. Such drawings, while attempts to depict reality, differ from reality itself, as they are filtered through personal perception. Drawing skills influence how effectively mental models are represented, and limited skills may lead to misinterpretation. Moreover, cultural differences affect the representational details of drawings, though research indicates that common themes can often be identified. As visitors mature, gender differences in symbolic representation and reference points become more evident. While many drawings can be interpreted based on physical similarity to the real world, they also reveal deeper meanings for example, the exaggeration of certain elements highlights their perceived importance. Emotional and affective aspects play an additional role, though beyond the scope of this study. For the purposes of this research, particular attention has been given to indicators such as naturalness, maintenance, spaciousness, architectural value, and order, along with environmental characteristics of urban spaces, including lighting, temperature, sound, air quality, surfaces, furniture, and color.
Methodology
The present study is applied in terms of purpose and was conducted in 2023 across four pedestrian pathways in the city of Tabriz. The selected case studies include Tarbiat, Valiasr, Ferdows, and Shahriar passages, chosen through cluster sampling from among the pedestrian streets of Tabriz. The study aims to explore an urban design model based on the components of evaluative mental imagery.
From a methodological standpoint, the research adopted a convergent design within the framework of mixed-methods research. The four primary designs in mixed-methods research are convergent (triangulation), embedded, explanatory, and exploratory. The purpose of the convergent design is to obtain diverse yet complementary data on a single issue, thereby ensuring a comprehensive understanding of the research problem. This design is particularly used when the researcher intends to directly compare or contrast quantitative statistical results with qualitative findings, or to extend and validate quantitative results through qualitative data.
Following a realist approach, this study employed a retroduction strategy. Retroduction, which is based on a cyclical or iterative logic, begins with an observed order but seeks a different type of explanation by uncovering the underlying structures or real mechanisms responsible for generating the observed patterns [Blaikie, 2009].
The primary research instrument was a researcher-designed questionnaire. To determine the factors influencing citizens’ willingness to be present in urban spaces, the study drew on the literature and key theoretical perspectives in the field. Based on these, indicators and components were identified, each operationalized through items in a 40-question survey. For content validity assessment, the initial version of the questionnaire was distributed among 25 urban studies experts, selected via purposive sampling. After incorporating their feedback, revisions were made, and the revised questionnaire was redistributed to the same group. Following expert validation, the number of items was reduced to 35. The reliability of the instrument was assessed using Cronbach’s alpha, which yielded a coefficient of 0.81.
The statistical population consisted of pedestrians in the selected Tabriz pathways. Using Cochran’s formula and a 10% error level, the sample size was determined to be 100 respondents, with each pathway accounting for 25 questionnaires. Sampling was conducted using random cluster sampling, where the clusters corresponded to the four main pedestrian pathways, and respondents within each cluster were randomly selected. The selection of representative urban landmarks was based on the inclusion of dominant characteristics of Tabriz pedestrian pathways, with an emphasis on maintaining balanced context-based functions.
The research process proceeded in several stages: employing scientific foundations of urban design, evaluative mental imagery, and citizens’ presence; extracting a conceptual and integrative model from these elements; estimating suitable criteria and indicators; designing the associated questionnaire; and finally, collecting responses from pathway users to analyze variables related to visual data and performance-oriented efficiency. The collected data provided the basis for proposing an urban design model grounded in evaluative mental imagery, ultimately leading to a performance-oriented architectural framework consistent with proposed strategies and policies. The core principle in shaping this model was the enhancement of citizens’ presence.
The quantitative data were derived from analyses of citizens’ presence in Tabriz pedestrian pathways. The research thus adopted a mixed quantitative–qualitative approach. In the quantitative phase, data collection was carried out through the questionnaire, with statistical analysis performed using Pearson’s correlation test in SPSS v.23. In the qualitative phase, field observations were employed. This integrated approach enabled a comprehensive and multidimensional evaluation of urban design, based on the components of evaluative mental imagery, across the four selected pedestrian pathways in Tabriz.
Findings
In the initial phase of the study, and within the qualitative stage, the literature on urban design, urban spaces, and mental imagery was reviewed. The theoretical exploration concerning evaluative mental imagery revealed that mental imagery originates from citizens’ satisfaction. This satisfaction consists of two dimensions: first, the extent to which citizens enter an environment, spend time in it, and the effort they invest; and second, the ways in which they allocate their time to the environment and the opportunities for presence that are organized to encourage participation in and benefit from environmental activities. A variety of factors influence citizens’ willingness to engage in urban spaces, some of which are cognitive and others non-cognitive.
The primary objective of this research was to examine the influence of both cognitive and non-cognitive factors on citizens’ presence. Nevertheless, a review of previous studies indicated that research on mental imagery and the impact of its components on presence has been scarce. Urban spaces are among the most significant informal yet influential structures in fostering a sense of joy and engagement, and are thus regarded as crucial factors affecting collective presence. Accordingly, elements such as citizens’ perceptions and attitudes, spatial form and location, and their interactions with the structural components of space emerge as significant spatial variables. Given the undeniable role of environmental mechanisms in enhancing citizens’ presence, this study further investigated physical components that could positively shape their evaluative mental imagery.
Subsequently, the research turned to the dimensions of satisfaction with urban spaces. Environmental satisfaction involves a subjective evaluation of both the quality and the objective characteristics of a given space, reflecting the extent to which it meets residents’ expectations and needs. Objective (quantitative) criteria are not only observable but also measurable and generally interpreted in similar ways across individuals. They are typically assessed through direct observation and field studies.
To identify the most critical physical components influencing presence, the literature on environmental physical factors and their impact on motivation and willingness to engage was analyzed. These criteria were later consolidated and categorized, and based on expert consensus, the most important factors were identified.
Quantitative Analysis
Respondents, drawn from different time periods, were asked about factors of legibility, vitality, and evaluative mental imagery, as well as environmental attributes from both subjective and design perspectives. Thirty survey questions were posed, covering urban design components such as nature, sound, light, color, and decoration, along with subjective dimensions including flexibility, legibility, environmental comfort, proportion, and visual perspective. Each of these was assessed in relation to presence-related constructs: legibility, vitality, and mental imagery.
Pearson correlation test results confirmed significant positive associations between urban design components (nature, sound, light, color, and decoration) and citizens’ perceptions of legibility, vitality, and evaluative mental imagery in the studied pedestrian pathways. Likewise, subjective factors (flexibility, legibility, environmental comfort, proportion, and visual perspective) were also positively and significantly correlated with these presence-related constructs.
The Kolmogorov–Smirnov test and skewness-kurtosis indices were used to test data normality. Findings indicated that all components followed a normal (or near-normal) distribution, as significance values exceeded 0.05 (p > 0.05) and skewness/kurtosis values fell within the acceptable range (−2 to +2). Accordingly, parametric tests such as Pearson correlation were deemed appropriate.
Overall, results demonstrated that all urban design and subjective factors were validated by citizens, albeit with varying degrees of influence. The following summarizes each factor:
- Urban Design – Nature: Citizens with higher educational levels valued natural elements more strongly (≈95% convergence, χ² ≈ 0.92). Length of residence also influenced responses (r = 0.75), though with a moderate χ² (≈0.52).
- Urban Design – Sound: Female citizens were more sensitive to auditory factors than males (82% vs. 67%), with χ² scores of 0.78 and 0.42, respectively, indicating a significant gender difference.
- Urban Design – Light: Sensitivity was slightly higher in the first half of the year compared to the second (80% vs. 74%). χ² values (0.64 vs. 0.56) suggested moderate to high impact.
- Urban Design – Color and Decoration: The strongest impact was observed among female citizens with higher education (96%, χ² ≈ 0.94). In contrast, male respondents with undergraduate degrees rated this component much lower (60%, χ² ≈ 0.36).
- Subjective – Flexibility: Rated positively by 72% of respondents (χ² ≈ 0.50). However, many participants noted ambiguity regarding the precise meaning of this factor.
- Subjective – Legibility: Strongly endorsed by long-term residents (94%, χ² ≈ 0.85). Shorter-term residents (<10 years) rated it much lower (56%, χ² ≈ 0.28).
- Subjective – Environmental Comfort: More strongly valued by citizens with lower educational attainment (≈89% among bachelor’s degree holders, χ² ≈ 0.80). Master’s degree holders rated it lower (≈80%, χ² ≈ 0.65).
- Subjective – Proportion: Male citizens attached greater importance (82%, χ² ≈ 0.65) than females (70%, χ² ≈ 0.49).
- Subjective – Visual Perspective: The weakest factor, with only 58% agreement and χ² ≈ 0.34, indicating limited influence.
The GOF (Goodness of Fit) index in PLS served as a practical measure for assessing overall model validity, operating similarly to fit indices in covariance-based approaches. Values closer to 1 indicate better fit, with thresholds above 0.36 suggesting adequate model quality.
Results revealed an R² of 0.85 for citizens’ willingness to be present, representing a desirable explanatory power. This suggests that the physical environment accounted for a substantial proportion of the variance across material, mental, and symbolic dimensions of space. In sum, the findings indicate that presence explains approximately 85% of the variance in quality of life.
Discussion
The present study sought to identify the factors and criteria influencing the enhancement of citizens’ perception and mental imagery of urban spaces. The research involved multiple variables, including components of evaluative mental imagery and satisfaction. The satisfaction-related factors were further categorized into subjective and urban design dimensions, while presence-related variables were classified into legibility, vitality, and mental imagery.
According to the findings, among the subjective factors, the strongest influence on citizens’ presence was attributed to the dimension of proportion (0.89), whereas among the urban design factors, nature (0.87) emerged as the most influential. With regard to presence, mental imagery ranked first, followed by legibility and vitality, respectively. Thus, the prioritization process indicated that initial interventions should focus on skillfully manipulating the dimensions of proportion and nature, which exerted significant effects on enhancing mental imagery (0.91 and 0.88, respectively). Subsequently, other priorities were extracted and categorized. Regarding the dimensions of presence, mental imagery (0.93) was identified as the highest priority, followed by legibility (0.87) and vitality (0.75).
In addressing public values, enhancing evaluative mental imagery can align places more closely with human purposes, thereby influencing citizens’ identity, health, and well-being. Physical appearance also shapes functionality. Our mental or cognitive imagery of events and values directly affects behavior; when a place is perceived as more attractive or desirable compared to others, people are naturally more inclined to visit it. Diverse physical forms convey varying meanings within activities, and different values can align with different purposes. For example, individuals may value excitement in recreational settings, whereas in therapeutic contexts, excitement is unnecessary. Similarly, some residents may appreciate spaces with prestigious appearances, while others may not. Public places that create an intimate and welcoming atmosphere are often highly valued. In this regard, visual character can significantly influence the behavioral meanings embedded within activities.
Consistent with these findings, Vahdat and Sajadzadeh (2016) emphasize the importance of physical components, followed by social, semantic, and environmental factors, as the most influential dimensions affecting citizens’ presence. Similarly, Khakzand et al. (2014) highlighted significant associations between factors such as influence, unity, coherence, place attachment, diversity, and attractiveness in urban design and citizens’ perceptibility. Furthermore, Montague (2015) found that artistic and graphic elements, when integrated into urban spaces, can attract people, foster community presence, and reinforce vitality and local identity.
Different places serve varying purposes and therefore necessitate distinct environmental characters. For instance, a neighborhood park, if designed to encourage interaction, can better fulfill its role, whereas waiting areas may function more effectively if interaction is not encouraged. Other environmental characters such as intimacy, privacy, legibility, simplicity, and adaptability can influence the performance of places. Ultimately, satisfactory performance depends largely on the atmosphere of a given space. Learning how to design visual features that affect diverse social and psychological outcomes such as those discussed earlier can be particularly valuable. Empirical studies can further explore the relationship between specific visual attributes and social-psychological objectives. One example is William Whyte’s (1980) study of Paley Park, which featured a formal entrance separating it from the street and neighborhood. Despite this, the park was perceived as intimate and integrated into its surroundings. Its defined entrance, adjacent food vendors, seating areas, and rear waterfall, combined with a simple and legible layout, rendered it highly comprehensible. Although Paley Park accommodated diverse activities, its ability to create a satisfying atmosphere was central to its overall appeal.
In sum, citizens’ presence was found to be most strongly associated with three dimensions: mental imagery, legibility, and vitality, respectively. Incorporating the considerations identified in this study, along with their prioritization, can enhance these dimensions and ultimately improve overall presence. Among the case studies, Tarbiat Pedestrian Path emerged as the most successful walkway in Tabriz due to its exceptional level of presence. Following this, Valiasr Path was identified as another successful urban space, offering positive emotional experiences. Ferdows Path functioned as a complementary recreational space adjacent to the larger Tabriz leisure complex, providing positive experiences and earning favorable evaluations. Similarly, Shahriar Path served as a complementary entrance space to the Grand Bazaar of Tabriz, reflecting its religious and gateway-like character.
This study faced several limitations, most notably time and financial constraints that restricted the expansion of the sample size and the number of pedestrian pathways investigated. Expanding the scope of analysis would not only improve the precision and generalizability of findings but also facilitate the identification of barriers and strategies for enhancing citizens’ mental imagery of urban spaces.
Conclusion
Overall, the pedestrian pathways of Tabriz were evaluated positively by both men and women. However, women, due to attributing greater significance to the concept of presence, were more strongly influenced by these pathways and found them comparatively more attractive.
Acknowledgment: None declared by the authors.
Ethical Permission: None declared by the authors.
Conflict of Interest: This research is derived from the dissertation of the first author, supervised by the second author and advised by the third author.
Authors’ Contributions: Mehri Gharaboia B (First Author): Introduction Writer/Methodologist/Discussion Writer (35%); Haghlesan M (Second Author): Discussion Writer/Introduction Writer (35%); Saghafi A (Third Author): Introduction Writer/Discussion Writer (30%)
Funding: None declared by the authors
Keywords:
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