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Volume 37, Issue 2 (2022)
GeoRes 2022, 37(2): 241-251 |
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Received: 2021/12/11 | Accepted: 2022/02/5 | Published: 2022/04/8
Received: 2021/12/11 | Accepted: 2022/02/5 | Published: 2022/04/8
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Rahimzadeh Sisbeig S, Sheykhol-Islami A, Zaker Haghighi K. Developing a Model of Participation of Non-Governmental Organizations in the Urban Management System (Case Study: Tehran Metropolis). GeoRes 2022; 37 (2) :241-251
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1- Department of Urban Planning, Faculty of Engineering, Boroujerd Branch, Islamic Azad University, Boroujerd, Iran
2- Department of Geography and Urban Planning, Faculty of Literature and Humanities, Boroujerd Branch, Islamic Azad University, Boroujerd, Iran
3- Department of Urban Planning, Faculty of Art and Architecture, Hamadan Branch, Islamic Azad University, Hamadan, Iran
2- Department of Geography and Urban Planning, Faculty of Literature and Humanities, Boroujerd Branch, Islamic Azad University, Boroujerd, Iran
3- Department of Urban Planning, Faculty of Art and Architecture, Hamadan Branch, Islamic Azad University, Hamadan, Iran
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Introduction
The world is undergoing a rapid process of urbanization, and consequently millions of people are added to urban populations each year. The growth of urban populations has led to profound transformations in urban life across demographic, economic, political, and cultural dimensions, giving rise to numerous urban challenges whose scope continues to expand [Tala, 2017: 558]. Recent global conditions, including the COVID-19 pandemic, water scarcity, global warming, and rising unemployment, are among the factors that currently exert the greatest influence on urban management. These conditions have heightened the need to reconsider the structures of urban governance and to harness public participation as a central concern of contemporary urban managers, repeatedly underscoring that cities cannot be effectively governed without citizen participation. For instance, the COVID-19 pandemic revealed that cities and urban management systems lacked sufficient resilience to cope with sudden shocks, such as biological hazards, severely affecting the economy, public health, welfare, and quality of life [Al-Jafan & Mhanna, 2017: 25].
Iran has not been exempt from these challenges. Problems such as water resource crises and subsidence threats resulting from excessive groundwater extraction increasingly endanger the sustainability and survival of cities in the central and southern regions of the country [Edalat et al., 2021: 2]. The impacts of such factors are clearly manifested in the surrounding environment and exert their greatest influence on urban life and urban management. In response, different countries have adopted diverse strategies to enhance the efficiency of urban management according to their specific conditions. For example, urban development in China has shifted from a traditional, centralized model focused on growth rates of concentration to a new form of urbanization that emphasizes participation and quality improvement [Yu, 2021: 123]. This indicates that contemporary urban management systems are no longer capable of addressing urban problems independently and increasingly require attention to and reliance on public participation. Urban planning experts argue that the absence of efficient management, people-centered planning, and participatory oversight leads to serious problems and operational inefficiency, ultimately rendering the implementation of integrated, regional, and participatory local governance impossible [Rajabi & Hesarinejad, 2013: 130].
The importance of participation in the management of cities and metropolises has reached a level where scholars and urban managers agree that urban development is unattainable without recognizing the role and position of citizens in planning and urban development processes [Li et al., 2021: 93]. One of the key ways to enhance public participation in metropolitan governance is through attention to civic institutions or informal organizations. In recent decades, alongside the growing emphasis on public participation and the emergence of the concept of urban governance, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), as a component of civil society, have emerged as major actors in the arena of urban governance [Bidar & Ghasemi, 2020: 8]. The primary objectives of NGOs include increasing public participation, establishing links between formal institutions and citizens, reflecting the real needs of urban communities to planning and urban management bodies, and mobilizing voluntary groups to implement urban goals and programs, including urban security initiatives [Karami & Samiei Isfahani, 2014: 129].
It should also be noted that the lack of a clearly defined position for civic institutions and the private sector within the country’s administrative and formal frameworks constitutes a major gap, preventing these sectors from formally expressing their demands to governmental institutions. Urban management and planning shaped through a top-down approach lead to the erosion of the public sphere and civil society. Consequently, large segments of the urban population, including local communities and informal groups that could play a crucial role in strengthening citizens’ bargaining power, are excluded from urban decision-making processes [Salehi et al., 2014: 4]. Such patterns of urban development have resulted in numerous adverse consequences, including spatial disorder, the expansion of poverty, inequality, inefficiency of service-providing and security organizations, and other negative urban outcomes.
In Iran, centralized and state-dominated management is no longer justifiable given the country’s significant ethnic diversity and the multiplicity of urban communities. Historical experience likewise demonstrates the limited success of this managerial approach [Estelaji, 2012: 240]. Urban scholars and researchers emphasize that shifts in governance perspectives, increasing demands from civil society for participation, the financial and administrative incapacity of governments, particularly local governments, and the intensification of underdevelopment challenges necessitate the utilization of private sector capacities, non-governmental public sectors, and the latent potential of public participation across all domains as a fundamental strategy for addressing problems and responding to challenges [Askarizadeh et al., 2019: 596].
In recent years, alongside advances in science, various theories have been proposed regarding urban management, the role of citizens within governance systems, and approaches to addressing emerging urban challenges, particularly in metropolises. Among the most influential theories are Arnstein’s “Ladder of Citizen Participation” and Davidson’s “Wheel of Participation,” which emphasize the necessity of participation in urban planning and management [Rahnama, 2009: 29]. At the core of these theories lies the fundamental principle of equality of opportunity for citizens. Moreover, the origins of participatory planning processes are rooted in strengthening local governance through collaboration among diverse groups, including public, private, and other stakeholders and engagement with influential actors [Li et al., 2020: 2]. Experts argue that since cities are responsible for meeting the needs of all social groups, they require maximum citizen involvement. Accordingly, urban regeneration accompanied by the empowerment of local communities represents a modern approach to solving urban problems, rejecting purely physical engineering solutions and the mere injection of financial resources. Instead, it emphasizes social engineering supported by the public sector, non-governmental and local organizations, and the active participation of residents [Shali & Tavakoli Nia, 2015].
Achieving participatory urbanism and enhancing public participation, as well as recognizing the role of NGOs in urban planning, involves two key challenges. The first is the transition from traditional to modern urban management, and the second is the emergence of contemporary cities and metropolises that face new issues and complex spatial challenges, making problem-solving increasingly difficult. In modern urban management, attention to the social structure of the city, shaped by citizens’ social, cultural, and economic relations, is essential, and decentralization policies have become a critical requirement, particularly in developing countries [Akbari, 2015: 190]. Modern urban management integrates development, implementation, coordination, and strategic evaluation processes, carried out with the involvement of urban actors while considering private sector objectives and citizens’ interests within a political framework [van Dijk, 2006: 25].
In the contemporary world, modern urban management confronts issues that were absent in traditional cities. The defining characteristics of today’s cities include spatial complexity, fluid forces, and dependence on prevailing political economies. Accordingly, an appropriate system of modern urban governance is required. In this system, maximum public participation, urban governance, bottom-up strategies, reduction of the gap between urban management and citizens, and the promotion of social justice are considered fundamental principles [Li et al., 2021: 25]. One of the key mechanisms for achieving these goals is the utilization of NGOs [Rice & Nigel, 2020: 25]. Within such governance processes, NGOs serve as the most important instruments and institutions for realizing participatory urbanism [Wong et al., 2006: 67]. They function as mediating bodies that regulate the relationship between citizens’ demands and the expectations of urban management. Through NGOs, citizens articulate their demands, and urban management responds to these demands within institutionalized civic frameworks.
In the Tehran metropolitan area, public awareness regarding demands for improving neighborhood and urban quality has increased. Consequently, civic institutions in the form of NGOs, charitable organizations, neighborhood councils, and committees have expanded and flourished in recent years. However, these civic institutions lack a clearly defined and systematic mechanism that would enable them to operate along a shared path. As a result, parallel activities and one-sided approaches to duties and responsibilities are evident. Some regard the organizational scope of NGO activities as overlapping with neighborhood centers or councils, while others believe that NGOs have become dependent on the urban management system. Nevertheless, the critical issue remains that the position, performance, and importance of NGOs in the Tehran metropolis have not yet been adequately recognized or matured, and no established model for their participation exists. This is despite the fact that Tehran ranks relatively low in terms of public participation compared to other cities in developing countries. Persistent urban problems, including deteriorated urban fabric, traffic congestion, air and noise pollution, security concerns, class disparities, poverty, unemployment, inflation, and many other issues, have progressively widened the gap between citizens and the urban management system, while the role of NGOs in addressing these challenges has largely been overlooked. Accordingly, this study seeks to propose a participatory model to examine how NGOs can be engaged and empowered to play an effective role in addressing urban management issues across six dimensions: physical, functional, social, economic, environmental, and institutional.
In light of the above, the objective of this research is to develop a model for fostering NGO participation within the urban management system of the Tehran metropolitan area.
Methodology
This study is applied in terms of purpose and adopts a descriptive–analytical research design. It was conducted in the Tehran metropolitan area across 123 municipal districts during the years 2020–2021. Data were collected through a combination of library research and field studies. Specifically, documentary and library methods were used to review the theoretical literature and research background, while field data were gathered using a questionnaire survey. The validity and reliability of the questionnaire were assessed using face validity and Cronbach’s alpha coefficient.
The statistical population of the study consisted of 2,654 district-level managers and staff employed in the municipal offices of Tehran’s 22 administrative regions. From this population, a sample of 360 managers and experts was selected. The sampling procedure involved identifying all municipal districts of the Tehran metropolis on a map and entering them into GIS software. Given the 22 regions and 123 municipal districts of Tehran, three questionnaires were completed in each district, resulting in a total of 360 questionnaires. In cases where some managers were unavailable, other informed and experienced experts were approached, and three questionnaires were completed for each district. The sample size was determined using Cochran’s formula. To analyze the collected data, descriptive statistical methods including mean values and frequency tables were employed, along with confirmatory factor analysis.
This study includes three main parameters: The emergence of participation as a dependent latent parameter, the possibility of participation and the intention or willingness to participate as independent latent parameters, and one mediating parameter comprising individual characteristics. The questionnaire designed to measure these parameters consisted of 47 items. Of these, 36 items measured the intention and willingness of non-governmental organizations to participate, one item assessed the availability of necessary facilities for public participation, and five items evaluated the institutional and legal conditions of participation. The remaining three items measured individuals’ personal characteristics. These items were presented in the form of a questionnaire and evaluated based on the judgments and opinions of the respondents.
Findings
Among the 360 respondents, 31% were female and 69% were male. The mean age of respondents was 45 years, ranging from 35 to 72 years. In terms of educational attainment, 41.4% held a bachelor’s degree, 23.9% had a master’s degree or higher, and 7.8% had an educational level below a bachelor’s degree.
Institutional and Legal Status of Participation
The institutional and legal status of participation within the urban management system was examined using five items, each measuring a specific aspect of how urban management addresses citizen participation. The minimum and maximum mean values of these items ranged from 2.53 to 3.03, with an overall mean of 2.83. These results indicate that urban management has paid a moderate to weak level of attention to citizen participation. In other words, the position of citizen participation within the urban management system can be considered moderate, with existing structures and regulations playing a significant role in shaping this condition.
Availability of Facilities for Public Participation in the Urban Management System of Tehran
To assess the availability of facilities for public participation in the urban management system, a single item was used. Respondents were asked to evaluate the extent to which the necessary facilities and conditions for the participation of citizens and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) in Tehran’s urban management system are provided. The results showed that 52.22% of respondents believed that the available facilities in this regard were less than 20%. This indicates that the conditions and mechanisms enabling NGOs to participate and operate within the urban management system are very limited.
Intentions and Objectives of NGOs in Participation
The intentions and objectives of NGOs in promoting citizen participation were examined across five dimensions. In other words, NGOs can contribute to increasing citizen participation in urban management through objectives related to physical, functional, environmental, social, economic, and institutional domains. Each of these dimensions was analyzed separately.
Role of NGOs in the Physical Dimension
In the physical dimension, the findings indicate that NGOs can play a particularly significant role in enhancing safety through improved street and public-space lighting. They can also actively and effectively participate in urban regeneration initiatives, including the rehabilitation of deteriorated urban fabrics and the restoration of historical buildings. Furthermore, NGOs were found to have a positive and effective role in enhancing the visual attractiveness of the city, preventing illegal construction, and improving the visual and physical quality of the urban environment. Overall, the average scores of the examined items suggest that, from the respondents’ perspective, NGOs can play a moderate to strong and effective role in the physical dimension of urban management.
Role of NGOs in the Functional Dimension
With regard to the functional dimension, the findings relate to the roles NGOs can play in various activities that provide services to citizens and enhance their quality of life. This dimension reflects the operational performance of NGOs within the urban management system. According to urban managers and experts, the mean level of NGO influence on citizen participation in the functional domain was moderate to high. This implies that NGOs are perceived as capable of playing a relatively strong role in the functional aspects of urban management. Although some respondents noted that NGOs in Tehran have not always demonstrated strong performance, many participants believed that NGOs could significantly contribute to improving the functional quality of the city, assisting in the development of recreational, health-care, cultural, artistic, educational, and sports facilities, as well as urban transportation.
Role of NGOs in the Social Dimension
The social dimension of NGO participation was assessed using five items. The results indicate that the average role and impact of NGOs in this dimension was moderate. Nevertheless, NGOs were perceived as having a particularly important role in encouraging citizen participation in urban projects, enhancing urban security, strengthening cultural identity, raising public awareness of urban laws and regulations, and fostering trust and confidence among citizens. These findings suggest that NGOs play a notable role in promoting social participation and cohesion within the urban context.
Role of NGOs in the Environmental Dimension
The environmental dimension is of critical importance for both urban sustainability and citizens’ quality of life in Tehran. Theoretical and empirical foundations of the study also emphasize the capacity of NGOs to engage in various aspects of urban environmental protection. Respondents were asked to express their views on the extent to which NGOs could participate and contribute to environmental issues. The results showed that, on average, NGOs play a strong role in environmental protection and in improving the overall environmental conditions of the city. Their contributions were particularly noted in promoting waste management culture, protecting urban green cover, and enhancing environmental hygiene.
Role of NGOs in the Economic Dimension
The economic dimension is one of the most significant aspects of urban life, directly influencing citizens’ welfare and well-being. To evaluate the economic role of NGOs in Tehran’s urban management, six items were used. The findings indicate that, from the perspective of managers and experts, the average impact of NGOs in economic domains was relatively high. The most influential roles were associated with enhancing tourism infrastructure and attracting private-sector investment for urban development. In other economic areas, the results were at least moderate, suggesting that NGOs are generally perceived as capable of playing an active role in promoting citizen participation in urban economic issues.
Role of NGOs in the Institutional Dimension
The institutional dimension relates to aspects of the urban management system that significantly affect citizens’ welfare, comfort, and urban living conditions. Six items were used to assess the institutional role of NGOs in Tehran’s urban management. The findings revealed a high average level of NGO influence in facilitating citizen participation within the institutional domain. This reflects the strong role of NGOs in mediating between citizens and urban management institutions, increasing communication, addressing citizen complaints, enhancing accountability, and contributing to planning and implementation processes. Overall, these results underscore the substantial importance of NGOs in improving institutional conditions within the urban management system.
Validation of the NGO Participation Model in the Urban Management System
The dimensions of NGO participation were further examined using confirmatory factor analysis conducted with Smart PLS software. In this approach, the strength of relationships between latent and observed parameters was assessed through factor loadings. Six components were used to represent the intentions and objectives of NGO participation. The items corresponding to each component were aggregated, and their mean values were compared with those of other participation dimensions. The results indicated that all factor loadings associated with paths leading to the main latent parameter exceeded the acceptable threshold, demonstrating that the observed parameters adequately measured the latent construct of NGOs’ objectives and intentions in urban management.
To confirm the path coefficients, the validity and reliability of the constructs were evaluated using Cronbach’s alpha, rho_A, composite reliability, and the average variance extracted (AVE). The results showed Cronbach’s alpha values above 0.9, indicating high internal consistency and reliability of the model. Similarly, rho_A values exceeded the acceptable threshold, confirming the adequacy and reliability of the selected items. Convergent validity was also confirmed, as composite reliability and AVE values surpassed standard criteria, reflecting strong convergence and high confidence in the measurement of NGO participation parameters.
In the subsequent stage, the position of participation within the urban management system was examined. The results demonstrated that the factor loadings of the related items were within an acceptable range, indicating that these items effectively measured the institutional and organizational status of participation in relation to citizen involvement. Reliability and validity assessments further confirmed that these constructs exhibited sufficient internal consistency and strong convergent validity.
By integrating all items and components related to NGO participation in the urban management system, a comprehensive participation model was developed. The results indicated that NGOs can participate across six key domains—physical, functional, environmental, social, economic, and institutional—and that their participation is driven by objectives related to these domains. In addition, individual characteristics such as age, gender, and especially educational level were found to have a positive influence on participation intentions, with higher levels of education potentially enhancing the effectiveness of NGO participation.
Finally, the findings related to the status of participation suggest that achieving meaningful participation requires appropriate organizational contexts, supportive approaches, and a clear legal and institutional framework. To enhance NGO participation, urban management structures must move toward the realization of good urban governance, adopt bottom-up strategies, promote social justice, reduce the gap between citizens and urban management, and ensure the provision of adequate facilities and conditions that enable NGOs to participate effectively.
Discussion
This article examined the manner in which non-governmental organizations (NGOs) participate and function within the urban management system. The issue was discussed and analyzed from both theoretical perspectives and empirical backgrounds. From a theoretical standpoint, frameworks such as Arnstein’s Ladder of Citizen Participation and Sohn’s Participation Wheel regard participation as a fundamental necessity for the life of contemporary cities, emphasizing the involvement of citizens in shaping their own destinies. A noteworthy point in this regard is the shift in participatory approaches from direct public involvement with the urban management system to indirect participation through groups and representatives originating from within the community itself. Within this paradigm shift, NGOs have emerged as voluntary and non-profit intermediaries linking citizens with the urban management system. In other words, NGOs have gained prominence as one of the key mechanisms for enhancing citizen participation in urban governance. Accordingly, the aim of this study was to propose a model for facilitating NGO participation in the urban management system. This objective was examined from multiple dimensions, incorporating the perspectives of urban managers, based on which the proposed participation model was formulated and discussed.
As the findings indicated, the role of NGOs in fostering participation depends on two parameters. First, the thematic areas and domains in which NGOs are able to operate; and second, the manner in which the urban management system can utilize these organizations to advance urban issues. Regarding the first parameter (fields of NGO participation), the results showed that NGOs play a fundamental role in environmental protection, which is consistent with the findings of Harangozó and Gyula (2015). The results also indicated that NGOs can play a significant role in addressing social issues. In this domain, NGOs can act as key stakeholders and agents in identifying many of citizens’ demands related to educational, service, cultural, and other facilities. They can also provide guidance and consultation in the field of civic education. Moreover, NGOs can contribute to urban security by identifying unsafe spaces and proposing constructive solutions for improvement. In this regard, Varvayi and Cheragh Abadi (2016) likewise have concluded that NGOs play an important role in urban management in the areas of security and crime prevention, a finding that aligns with the results of the present study.
The analysis of the research findings further revealed that the factor loadings and construct coefficients possess sufficient validity. Accordingly, NGOs can effectively engage in various social domains and issues, drawing on their experience and expertise to collaborate productively with the urban management system in addressing social challenges. In contemporary urban governance, particularly in efforts to achieve sustainable urban development through efficient management, strong emphasis was placed on participation and on utilizing the expertise of various civic associations and organizations. In this context, NGOs, characterized by diverse specializations, grassroots origins, and voluntary engagement, were well positioned to understand citizens’ needs, plan accordingly, and propose solutions to meet urban demands to the greatest extent possible. Furthermore, as NGOs emerged from within society and represent grassroots movements, they possessed a nuanced understanding of urban spaces and citizens’ needs. Consequently, NGOs can play an important role in shaping public culture and, through continuous interaction with citizens, communicate many of the issues and challenges of urban management to the public. Overall, the findings indicated that NGOs play a fundamental and vital role in the urban management system and are now considered essential pillars of good urban governance. Through their specialized capacities, they can enhance citizen participation across multiple dimensions. The results also showed that the mean importance of NGOs across various domains, including physical, institutional, social, economic, environmental, and functional dimensions, was above average. Urban managers were likewise aware that, without the support of NGOs, they cannot independently resolve urban problems and crises. Thus, it became evident that the scope of NGO activities is extensive and not limited to physical or structural urban issues. NGOs can engage in socio-economic and cultural domains and offer constructive proposals for stimulating urban economic vitality and improving citizens’ social quality of life. Through their ongoing interaction with residents, NGOs were able to identify existing opportunities, capacities, and potentials within urban neighborhoods and collaborate with urban management authorities in planning for these opportunities. The findings of this study were consistent with those of previous research (Tavakoli et al., 2018; Naderi et al., 2019; Bidar & Ghasemi, 2020), which emphasize that NGOs can operate across diverse fields, including health care, public health, welfare and sustainable development, as well as cultural, social, and economic activities.
The present study also demonstrated that the primary model for NGO participation in the urban management system centers on recognizing and strengthening the role and status of these organizations within urban governance. Given that NGOs can facilitate participatory processes across multiple dimensions, it was essential to pay close attention to their legal and functional status. The results of this research are consistent with previous studies (Rajabi & Hesari Nejad, 2013; Karami & Samiei Isfahani, 2014; Harangozó & Gyula, 2015; Ahmadnia & Kamel Qalibaf, 2017; Tavakoli et al., 2018), which identify the first step toward enabling citizen participation in urban management as enhancing the position and importance of NGOs within the urban governance framework.
Conclusion
Effective and efficient NGO participation requires institutional and legal reforms within the urban management system to attract and facilitate the participation of citizens and civic organizations. The absence of laws and regulations that can meaningfully encourage and institutionalize greater public and NGO involvement in urban management is both evident and tangible. In addition, it is essential to establish the necessary infrastructures, facilities, and conditions for NGO participation, including the provision of adequate software and hardware resources and accurate, up-to-date information databases within the urban management system. Such measures can provide a solid foundation for NGO-led studies and lead to the formulation of practical and effective solutions. Furthermore, achieving optimal and meaningful participation necessitates the development of clear strategies, the specification of objectives and needs, and the delineation of defined areas of activity for citizens and NGOs in collaboration with urban management. This is because the emergence of participation depends on taking steps rooted in the goals, intentions, and aspirations of citizens and NGOs themselves. Accordingly, NGOs can serve as a driving force for addressing citizens’ core demands, realizing citizens’ rights, and advancing good urban governance.
Acknowledgements: The authors would like to express their sincere gratitude to the editorial team of the Geographical Research journal.
Ethical Permission: There are no ethical issues to be reported.
Conflict of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Authors’ Contributions: Sheykhol-Islami A (First Author), Introduction Writer/Methodologist/Statistical Analyst (50%);
Zaker Haghighi K (Second Author), Introduction Writer/Discussion Writer (10%); Rahimzadeh Sisibeig S (Third Author), Research Assistant (40%)
Funding: This article was conducted independently and funded through the personal expenses of Siroos Rahimzadeh Sisibeig.
The world is undergoing a rapid process of urbanization, and consequently millions of people are added to urban populations each year. The growth of urban populations has led to profound transformations in urban life across demographic, economic, political, and cultural dimensions, giving rise to numerous urban challenges whose scope continues to expand [Tala, 2017: 558]. Recent global conditions, including the COVID-19 pandemic, water scarcity, global warming, and rising unemployment, are among the factors that currently exert the greatest influence on urban management. These conditions have heightened the need to reconsider the structures of urban governance and to harness public participation as a central concern of contemporary urban managers, repeatedly underscoring that cities cannot be effectively governed without citizen participation. For instance, the COVID-19 pandemic revealed that cities and urban management systems lacked sufficient resilience to cope with sudden shocks, such as biological hazards, severely affecting the economy, public health, welfare, and quality of life [Al-Jafan & Mhanna, 2017: 25].
Iran has not been exempt from these challenges. Problems such as water resource crises and subsidence threats resulting from excessive groundwater extraction increasingly endanger the sustainability and survival of cities in the central and southern regions of the country [Edalat et al., 2021: 2]. The impacts of such factors are clearly manifested in the surrounding environment and exert their greatest influence on urban life and urban management. In response, different countries have adopted diverse strategies to enhance the efficiency of urban management according to their specific conditions. For example, urban development in China has shifted from a traditional, centralized model focused on growth rates of concentration to a new form of urbanization that emphasizes participation and quality improvement [Yu, 2021: 123]. This indicates that contemporary urban management systems are no longer capable of addressing urban problems independently and increasingly require attention to and reliance on public participation. Urban planning experts argue that the absence of efficient management, people-centered planning, and participatory oversight leads to serious problems and operational inefficiency, ultimately rendering the implementation of integrated, regional, and participatory local governance impossible [Rajabi & Hesarinejad, 2013: 130].
The importance of participation in the management of cities and metropolises has reached a level where scholars and urban managers agree that urban development is unattainable without recognizing the role and position of citizens in planning and urban development processes [Li et al., 2021: 93]. One of the key ways to enhance public participation in metropolitan governance is through attention to civic institutions or informal organizations. In recent decades, alongside the growing emphasis on public participation and the emergence of the concept of urban governance, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), as a component of civil society, have emerged as major actors in the arena of urban governance [Bidar & Ghasemi, 2020: 8]. The primary objectives of NGOs include increasing public participation, establishing links between formal institutions and citizens, reflecting the real needs of urban communities to planning and urban management bodies, and mobilizing voluntary groups to implement urban goals and programs, including urban security initiatives [Karami & Samiei Isfahani, 2014: 129].
It should also be noted that the lack of a clearly defined position for civic institutions and the private sector within the country’s administrative and formal frameworks constitutes a major gap, preventing these sectors from formally expressing their demands to governmental institutions. Urban management and planning shaped through a top-down approach lead to the erosion of the public sphere and civil society. Consequently, large segments of the urban population, including local communities and informal groups that could play a crucial role in strengthening citizens’ bargaining power, are excluded from urban decision-making processes [Salehi et al., 2014: 4]. Such patterns of urban development have resulted in numerous adverse consequences, including spatial disorder, the expansion of poverty, inequality, inefficiency of service-providing and security organizations, and other negative urban outcomes.
In Iran, centralized and state-dominated management is no longer justifiable given the country’s significant ethnic diversity and the multiplicity of urban communities. Historical experience likewise demonstrates the limited success of this managerial approach [Estelaji, 2012: 240]. Urban scholars and researchers emphasize that shifts in governance perspectives, increasing demands from civil society for participation, the financial and administrative incapacity of governments, particularly local governments, and the intensification of underdevelopment challenges necessitate the utilization of private sector capacities, non-governmental public sectors, and the latent potential of public participation across all domains as a fundamental strategy for addressing problems and responding to challenges [Askarizadeh et al., 2019: 596].
In recent years, alongside advances in science, various theories have been proposed regarding urban management, the role of citizens within governance systems, and approaches to addressing emerging urban challenges, particularly in metropolises. Among the most influential theories are Arnstein’s “Ladder of Citizen Participation” and Davidson’s “Wheel of Participation,” which emphasize the necessity of participation in urban planning and management [Rahnama, 2009: 29]. At the core of these theories lies the fundamental principle of equality of opportunity for citizens. Moreover, the origins of participatory planning processes are rooted in strengthening local governance through collaboration among diverse groups, including public, private, and other stakeholders and engagement with influential actors [Li et al., 2020: 2]. Experts argue that since cities are responsible for meeting the needs of all social groups, they require maximum citizen involvement. Accordingly, urban regeneration accompanied by the empowerment of local communities represents a modern approach to solving urban problems, rejecting purely physical engineering solutions and the mere injection of financial resources. Instead, it emphasizes social engineering supported by the public sector, non-governmental and local organizations, and the active participation of residents [Shali & Tavakoli Nia, 2015].
Achieving participatory urbanism and enhancing public participation, as well as recognizing the role of NGOs in urban planning, involves two key challenges. The first is the transition from traditional to modern urban management, and the second is the emergence of contemporary cities and metropolises that face new issues and complex spatial challenges, making problem-solving increasingly difficult. In modern urban management, attention to the social structure of the city, shaped by citizens’ social, cultural, and economic relations, is essential, and decentralization policies have become a critical requirement, particularly in developing countries [Akbari, 2015: 190]. Modern urban management integrates development, implementation, coordination, and strategic evaluation processes, carried out with the involvement of urban actors while considering private sector objectives and citizens’ interests within a political framework [van Dijk, 2006: 25].
In the contemporary world, modern urban management confronts issues that were absent in traditional cities. The defining characteristics of today’s cities include spatial complexity, fluid forces, and dependence on prevailing political economies. Accordingly, an appropriate system of modern urban governance is required. In this system, maximum public participation, urban governance, bottom-up strategies, reduction of the gap between urban management and citizens, and the promotion of social justice are considered fundamental principles [Li et al., 2021: 25]. One of the key mechanisms for achieving these goals is the utilization of NGOs [Rice & Nigel, 2020: 25]. Within such governance processes, NGOs serve as the most important instruments and institutions for realizing participatory urbanism [Wong et al., 2006: 67]. They function as mediating bodies that regulate the relationship between citizens’ demands and the expectations of urban management. Through NGOs, citizens articulate their demands, and urban management responds to these demands within institutionalized civic frameworks.
In the Tehran metropolitan area, public awareness regarding demands for improving neighborhood and urban quality has increased. Consequently, civic institutions in the form of NGOs, charitable organizations, neighborhood councils, and committees have expanded and flourished in recent years. However, these civic institutions lack a clearly defined and systematic mechanism that would enable them to operate along a shared path. As a result, parallel activities and one-sided approaches to duties and responsibilities are evident. Some regard the organizational scope of NGO activities as overlapping with neighborhood centers or councils, while others believe that NGOs have become dependent on the urban management system. Nevertheless, the critical issue remains that the position, performance, and importance of NGOs in the Tehran metropolis have not yet been adequately recognized or matured, and no established model for their participation exists. This is despite the fact that Tehran ranks relatively low in terms of public participation compared to other cities in developing countries. Persistent urban problems, including deteriorated urban fabric, traffic congestion, air and noise pollution, security concerns, class disparities, poverty, unemployment, inflation, and many other issues, have progressively widened the gap between citizens and the urban management system, while the role of NGOs in addressing these challenges has largely been overlooked. Accordingly, this study seeks to propose a participatory model to examine how NGOs can be engaged and empowered to play an effective role in addressing urban management issues across six dimensions: physical, functional, social, economic, environmental, and institutional.
In light of the above, the objective of this research is to develop a model for fostering NGO participation within the urban management system of the Tehran metropolitan area.
Methodology
This study is applied in terms of purpose and adopts a descriptive–analytical research design. It was conducted in the Tehran metropolitan area across 123 municipal districts during the years 2020–2021. Data were collected through a combination of library research and field studies. Specifically, documentary and library methods were used to review the theoretical literature and research background, while field data were gathered using a questionnaire survey. The validity and reliability of the questionnaire were assessed using face validity and Cronbach’s alpha coefficient.
The statistical population of the study consisted of 2,654 district-level managers and staff employed in the municipal offices of Tehran’s 22 administrative regions. From this population, a sample of 360 managers and experts was selected. The sampling procedure involved identifying all municipal districts of the Tehran metropolis on a map and entering them into GIS software. Given the 22 regions and 123 municipal districts of Tehran, three questionnaires were completed in each district, resulting in a total of 360 questionnaires. In cases where some managers were unavailable, other informed and experienced experts were approached, and three questionnaires were completed for each district. The sample size was determined using Cochran’s formula. To analyze the collected data, descriptive statistical methods including mean values and frequency tables were employed, along with confirmatory factor analysis.
This study includes three main parameters: The emergence of participation as a dependent latent parameter, the possibility of participation and the intention or willingness to participate as independent latent parameters, and one mediating parameter comprising individual characteristics. The questionnaire designed to measure these parameters consisted of 47 items. Of these, 36 items measured the intention and willingness of non-governmental organizations to participate, one item assessed the availability of necessary facilities for public participation, and five items evaluated the institutional and legal conditions of participation. The remaining three items measured individuals’ personal characteristics. These items were presented in the form of a questionnaire and evaluated based on the judgments and opinions of the respondents.
Findings
Among the 360 respondents, 31% were female and 69% were male. The mean age of respondents was 45 years, ranging from 35 to 72 years. In terms of educational attainment, 41.4% held a bachelor’s degree, 23.9% had a master’s degree or higher, and 7.8% had an educational level below a bachelor’s degree.
Institutional and Legal Status of Participation
The institutional and legal status of participation within the urban management system was examined using five items, each measuring a specific aspect of how urban management addresses citizen participation. The minimum and maximum mean values of these items ranged from 2.53 to 3.03, with an overall mean of 2.83. These results indicate that urban management has paid a moderate to weak level of attention to citizen participation. In other words, the position of citizen participation within the urban management system can be considered moderate, with existing structures and regulations playing a significant role in shaping this condition.
Availability of Facilities for Public Participation in the Urban Management System of Tehran
To assess the availability of facilities for public participation in the urban management system, a single item was used. Respondents were asked to evaluate the extent to which the necessary facilities and conditions for the participation of citizens and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) in Tehran’s urban management system are provided. The results showed that 52.22% of respondents believed that the available facilities in this regard were less than 20%. This indicates that the conditions and mechanisms enabling NGOs to participate and operate within the urban management system are very limited.
Intentions and Objectives of NGOs in Participation
The intentions and objectives of NGOs in promoting citizen participation were examined across five dimensions. In other words, NGOs can contribute to increasing citizen participation in urban management through objectives related to physical, functional, environmental, social, economic, and institutional domains. Each of these dimensions was analyzed separately.
Role of NGOs in the Physical Dimension
In the physical dimension, the findings indicate that NGOs can play a particularly significant role in enhancing safety through improved street and public-space lighting. They can also actively and effectively participate in urban regeneration initiatives, including the rehabilitation of deteriorated urban fabrics and the restoration of historical buildings. Furthermore, NGOs were found to have a positive and effective role in enhancing the visual attractiveness of the city, preventing illegal construction, and improving the visual and physical quality of the urban environment. Overall, the average scores of the examined items suggest that, from the respondents’ perspective, NGOs can play a moderate to strong and effective role in the physical dimension of urban management.
Role of NGOs in the Functional Dimension
With regard to the functional dimension, the findings relate to the roles NGOs can play in various activities that provide services to citizens and enhance their quality of life. This dimension reflects the operational performance of NGOs within the urban management system. According to urban managers and experts, the mean level of NGO influence on citizen participation in the functional domain was moderate to high. This implies that NGOs are perceived as capable of playing a relatively strong role in the functional aspects of urban management. Although some respondents noted that NGOs in Tehran have not always demonstrated strong performance, many participants believed that NGOs could significantly contribute to improving the functional quality of the city, assisting in the development of recreational, health-care, cultural, artistic, educational, and sports facilities, as well as urban transportation.
Role of NGOs in the Social Dimension
The social dimension of NGO participation was assessed using five items. The results indicate that the average role and impact of NGOs in this dimension was moderate. Nevertheless, NGOs were perceived as having a particularly important role in encouraging citizen participation in urban projects, enhancing urban security, strengthening cultural identity, raising public awareness of urban laws and regulations, and fostering trust and confidence among citizens. These findings suggest that NGOs play a notable role in promoting social participation and cohesion within the urban context.
Role of NGOs in the Environmental Dimension
The environmental dimension is of critical importance for both urban sustainability and citizens’ quality of life in Tehran. Theoretical and empirical foundations of the study also emphasize the capacity of NGOs to engage in various aspects of urban environmental protection. Respondents were asked to express their views on the extent to which NGOs could participate and contribute to environmental issues. The results showed that, on average, NGOs play a strong role in environmental protection and in improving the overall environmental conditions of the city. Their contributions were particularly noted in promoting waste management culture, protecting urban green cover, and enhancing environmental hygiene.
Role of NGOs in the Economic Dimension
The economic dimension is one of the most significant aspects of urban life, directly influencing citizens’ welfare and well-being. To evaluate the economic role of NGOs in Tehran’s urban management, six items were used. The findings indicate that, from the perspective of managers and experts, the average impact of NGOs in economic domains was relatively high. The most influential roles were associated with enhancing tourism infrastructure and attracting private-sector investment for urban development. In other economic areas, the results were at least moderate, suggesting that NGOs are generally perceived as capable of playing an active role in promoting citizen participation in urban economic issues.
Role of NGOs in the Institutional Dimension
The institutional dimension relates to aspects of the urban management system that significantly affect citizens’ welfare, comfort, and urban living conditions. Six items were used to assess the institutional role of NGOs in Tehran’s urban management. The findings revealed a high average level of NGO influence in facilitating citizen participation within the institutional domain. This reflects the strong role of NGOs in mediating between citizens and urban management institutions, increasing communication, addressing citizen complaints, enhancing accountability, and contributing to planning and implementation processes. Overall, these results underscore the substantial importance of NGOs in improving institutional conditions within the urban management system.
Validation of the NGO Participation Model in the Urban Management System
The dimensions of NGO participation were further examined using confirmatory factor analysis conducted with Smart PLS software. In this approach, the strength of relationships between latent and observed parameters was assessed through factor loadings. Six components were used to represent the intentions and objectives of NGO participation. The items corresponding to each component were aggregated, and their mean values were compared with those of other participation dimensions. The results indicated that all factor loadings associated with paths leading to the main latent parameter exceeded the acceptable threshold, demonstrating that the observed parameters adequately measured the latent construct of NGOs’ objectives and intentions in urban management.
To confirm the path coefficients, the validity and reliability of the constructs were evaluated using Cronbach’s alpha, rho_A, composite reliability, and the average variance extracted (AVE). The results showed Cronbach’s alpha values above 0.9, indicating high internal consistency and reliability of the model. Similarly, rho_A values exceeded the acceptable threshold, confirming the adequacy and reliability of the selected items. Convergent validity was also confirmed, as composite reliability and AVE values surpassed standard criteria, reflecting strong convergence and high confidence in the measurement of NGO participation parameters.
In the subsequent stage, the position of participation within the urban management system was examined. The results demonstrated that the factor loadings of the related items were within an acceptable range, indicating that these items effectively measured the institutional and organizational status of participation in relation to citizen involvement. Reliability and validity assessments further confirmed that these constructs exhibited sufficient internal consistency and strong convergent validity.
By integrating all items and components related to NGO participation in the urban management system, a comprehensive participation model was developed. The results indicated that NGOs can participate across six key domains—physical, functional, environmental, social, economic, and institutional—and that their participation is driven by objectives related to these domains. In addition, individual characteristics such as age, gender, and especially educational level were found to have a positive influence on participation intentions, with higher levels of education potentially enhancing the effectiveness of NGO participation.
Finally, the findings related to the status of participation suggest that achieving meaningful participation requires appropriate organizational contexts, supportive approaches, and a clear legal and institutional framework. To enhance NGO participation, urban management structures must move toward the realization of good urban governance, adopt bottom-up strategies, promote social justice, reduce the gap between citizens and urban management, and ensure the provision of adequate facilities and conditions that enable NGOs to participate effectively.
Discussion
This article examined the manner in which non-governmental organizations (NGOs) participate and function within the urban management system. The issue was discussed and analyzed from both theoretical perspectives and empirical backgrounds. From a theoretical standpoint, frameworks such as Arnstein’s Ladder of Citizen Participation and Sohn’s Participation Wheel regard participation as a fundamental necessity for the life of contemporary cities, emphasizing the involvement of citizens in shaping their own destinies. A noteworthy point in this regard is the shift in participatory approaches from direct public involvement with the urban management system to indirect participation through groups and representatives originating from within the community itself. Within this paradigm shift, NGOs have emerged as voluntary and non-profit intermediaries linking citizens with the urban management system. In other words, NGOs have gained prominence as one of the key mechanisms for enhancing citizen participation in urban governance. Accordingly, the aim of this study was to propose a model for facilitating NGO participation in the urban management system. This objective was examined from multiple dimensions, incorporating the perspectives of urban managers, based on which the proposed participation model was formulated and discussed.
As the findings indicated, the role of NGOs in fostering participation depends on two parameters. First, the thematic areas and domains in which NGOs are able to operate; and second, the manner in which the urban management system can utilize these organizations to advance urban issues. Regarding the first parameter (fields of NGO participation), the results showed that NGOs play a fundamental role in environmental protection, which is consistent with the findings of Harangozó and Gyula (2015). The results also indicated that NGOs can play a significant role in addressing social issues. In this domain, NGOs can act as key stakeholders and agents in identifying many of citizens’ demands related to educational, service, cultural, and other facilities. They can also provide guidance and consultation in the field of civic education. Moreover, NGOs can contribute to urban security by identifying unsafe spaces and proposing constructive solutions for improvement. In this regard, Varvayi and Cheragh Abadi (2016) likewise have concluded that NGOs play an important role in urban management in the areas of security and crime prevention, a finding that aligns with the results of the present study.
The analysis of the research findings further revealed that the factor loadings and construct coefficients possess sufficient validity. Accordingly, NGOs can effectively engage in various social domains and issues, drawing on their experience and expertise to collaborate productively with the urban management system in addressing social challenges. In contemporary urban governance, particularly in efforts to achieve sustainable urban development through efficient management, strong emphasis was placed on participation and on utilizing the expertise of various civic associations and organizations. In this context, NGOs, characterized by diverse specializations, grassroots origins, and voluntary engagement, were well positioned to understand citizens’ needs, plan accordingly, and propose solutions to meet urban demands to the greatest extent possible. Furthermore, as NGOs emerged from within society and represent grassroots movements, they possessed a nuanced understanding of urban spaces and citizens’ needs. Consequently, NGOs can play an important role in shaping public culture and, through continuous interaction with citizens, communicate many of the issues and challenges of urban management to the public. Overall, the findings indicated that NGOs play a fundamental and vital role in the urban management system and are now considered essential pillars of good urban governance. Through their specialized capacities, they can enhance citizen participation across multiple dimensions. The results also showed that the mean importance of NGOs across various domains, including physical, institutional, social, economic, environmental, and functional dimensions, was above average. Urban managers were likewise aware that, without the support of NGOs, they cannot independently resolve urban problems and crises. Thus, it became evident that the scope of NGO activities is extensive and not limited to physical or structural urban issues. NGOs can engage in socio-economic and cultural domains and offer constructive proposals for stimulating urban economic vitality and improving citizens’ social quality of life. Through their ongoing interaction with residents, NGOs were able to identify existing opportunities, capacities, and potentials within urban neighborhoods and collaborate with urban management authorities in planning for these opportunities. The findings of this study were consistent with those of previous research (Tavakoli et al., 2018; Naderi et al., 2019; Bidar & Ghasemi, 2020), which emphasize that NGOs can operate across diverse fields, including health care, public health, welfare and sustainable development, as well as cultural, social, and economic activities.
The present study also demonstrated that the primary model for NGO participation in the urban management system centers on recognizing and strengthening the role and status of these organizations within urban governance. Given that NGOs can facilitate participatory processes across multiple dimensions, it was essential to pay close attention to their legal and functional status. The results of this research are consistent with previous studies (Rajabi & Hesari Nejad, 2013; Karami & Samiei Isfahani, 2014; Harangozó & Gyula, 2015; Ahmadnia & Kamel Qalibaf, 2017; Tavakoli et al., 2018), which identify the first step toward enabling citizen participation in urban management as enhancing the position and importance of NGOs within the urban governance framework.
Conclusion
Effective and efficient NGO participation requires institutional and legal reforms within the urban management system to attract and facilitate the participation of citizens and civic organizations. The absence of laws and regulations that can meaningfully encourage and institutionalize greater public and NGO involvement in urban management is both evident and tangible. In addition, it is essential to establish the necessary infrastructures, facilities, and conditions for NGO participation, including the provision of adequate software and hardware resources and accurate, up-to-date information databases within the urban management system. Such measures can provide a solid foundation for NGO-led studies and lead to the formulation of practical and effective solutions. Furthermore, achieving optimal and meaningful participation necessitates the development of clear strategies, the specification of objectives and needs, and the delineation of defined areas of activity for citizens and NGOs in collaboration with urban management. This is because the emergence of participation depends on taking steps rooted in the goals, intentions, and aspirations of citizens and NGOs themselves. Accordingly, NGOs can serve as a driving force for addressing citizens’ core demands, realizing citizens’ rights, and advancing good urban governance.
Acknowledgements: The authors would like to express their sincere gratitude to the editorial team of the Geographical Research journal.
Ethical Permission: There are no ethical issues to be reported.
Conflict of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Authors’ Contributions: Sheykhol-Islami A (First Author), Introduction Writer/Methodologist/Statistical Analyst (50%);
Zaker Haghighi K (Second Author), Introduction Writer/Discussion Writer (10%); Rahimzadeh Sisibeig S (Third Author), Research Assistant (40%)
Funding: This article was conducted independently and funded through the personal expenses of Siroos Rahimzadeh Sisibeig.
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