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Received: 2021/12/1 | Accepted: 2021/12/23 | Published: 2022/02/27
Received: 2021/12/1 | Accepted: 2021/12/23 | Published: 2022/02/27
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Moradgholi A, Anvari M, Miri S. Physical Planning with a Passive Defense Approach in the City of Zahedan. GeoRes 2022; 37 (1) :27-37
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1- Department of Geography and Urban Planning, Zahedan Branch, Islamic Azad University, Zahedan, Iran
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Introduction
The contemporary era is characterized by urban vulnerability [Mohammadi Dehcheshmeh & Hidarynia, 2015]. Over recent decades, the excessive concentration of population in urban centers and the extensive transformations within them have turned cities into hazardous environments [Huseini Amini et al., 2019]. In general, urban life exposes citizens to a wide range of risks and crises. These crises potentially threaten urban safety and security at local, urban, and national levels [Jozi Khamselooei & Javaheran, 2013]. Although such crises may originate from various sources, they can broadly be classified into crises resulting from shortages of basic human needs; crises arising from political, environmental, social, and economic conditions; and, finally, crises occurring due to natural or human-induced causes.
The distinction among these crises lies in the scale and depth of their impacts, as the damages and casualties they generate may be extremely severe [Fredro, 2009]. In fact, the dysfunction of urban centers and vital facilities, as the core of any system, leads to disruptions in the balance of urban systems and gives rise to multiple challenges in the survival of human communities. This situation seriously undermines control and continuity due to the failure of key decision-making centers and the destruction of essential societal requirements within space, thereby triggering critical crises [Salari Sardari & Kiani, 2018]. Accordingly, adopting measures and strategies aimed at reducing urban vulnerability to hazards and threats is essential, which has intensified attention toward the concept of passive defense and the application of its principles [Yazdani, 2017; Siami et al., 2014]. Consequently, the issue of ensuring citizen security and safeguarding all urban facilities and infrastructures through intelligent and well-planned approaches has paved the way for the emergence of the concept of urban passive defense [Huseini Amini et al., 2019].
In recent years, the issue of security and the necessity of passive defense have become highly applicable in urban planning [Bornafar & Afradi, 2014]. The spatial organization of cities, which has undergone transformation throughout historical urban development, has imposed diverse functions on the order and public security of the urban environment [Anvari & Nazmi Feyzabadi, 2017]. Observing passive defense requirements is therefore considered a fundamental principle for sustainable and resilient development of urban facilities and infrastructures, as well as for the protection of citizens’ lives and property [Kamran & Hosaini Amini, 2012]. Passive defense in urban areas is a subject of heightened importance from economic, political, social, and cultural perspectives [Tang & Wen, 2009]. Hence, the attention of managers and authorities to passive defense plans provides the necessary groundwork for advancing this modern approach toward enhancing the concept of urban safety and security [Brandon, 2011: 14].
Within urban planning processes, land-use planning plays a crucial role in reducing urban vulnerability to crises in general, and to military threats in particular [Amini et al., 2010]. Despite urban development, the likelihood of cities’ vulnerability to human-induced crises such as bombings, urban unrest, and terrorist activities has increased in recent decades. Accordingly, urban managers and planners have increasingly employed modern planning and urban design approaches, including passive defense, to structure the physical form of cities, urban spatial planning, and the arrangement of diverse land uses based on contemporary strategic frameworks [Taghvaei & Jovzi Khameslouei, 2012].
Numerous studies have examined various dimensions of physical planning through the lens of passive defense, addressing issues such as the application of passive defense in urban housing planning and urban safety, urban transportation systems, the creation of safe residential neighborhoods, urban security pathology, and the vulnerability of urban spaces with an emphasis on physical, economic, and social factors. Based on the findings of previous research, the novelty of the present study lies in integrating geographical criteria and indicators with passive defense principles and proposing a new conceptual framework for assessing physical vulnerability based on threat-oriented criteria.
In Iranian cities, passive defense has largely been neglected, rendering urban areas highly vulnerable to crises. In reality, passive defense holds no significant position within Iran’s urban planning system, a situation that is extremely perilous for a country exposed to various threats. Zahedan, the largest border city in southeastern Iran and the capital of Sistan and Baluchestan Province, is located near the borders with Afghanistan and Pakistan [Rousta et al., 2018]. Rapid population growth, deteriorated physical fabric in many parts of the city, and the use of low-durability construction materials have resulted in physical–spatial manifestations that, in several respects, fail to comply with urban planning principles and standards.
Moreover, unregulated urban expansion, the presence of slums, informal settlements, and marginalization, along with the lack of infrastructure and urban services in these areas, have intensified urban vulnerability. Environmental hazards, such as exposure to dust storms, the presence of two major fault lines, and location within flood-prone zones, further highlight the necessity of examining passive defense in this city. Additionally, Zahedan annually attracts a large influx of migrants from cities such as Zabol and Zahak, as well as other parts of the province, seeking employment and settlement. These conditions underscore the critical need to address passive defense issues in Zahedan, as any crisis occurring in this region could have extensive repercussions for urban and even national management, imposing substantial economic and social losses on both citizens and authorities.
Therefore, physical planning with a passive defense approach represents the only viable means of safeguarding this dense area with its social, economic, cultural, political, and military potentials, thereby clearly demonstrating the significance of the present research. Accordingly, studying passive defense to mitigate the adverse impacts of natural and human-induced crises, particularly from a physical perspective is essential and should begin with priority areas. Hence, the primary objective of this study is to develop physical planning strategies based on a passive defense approach in the city of Zahedan.
Methodology
This applied study adopted an analytical approach and was conducted in 2021, focusing on the city of Zahedan in Sistan and Baluchestan Province. In terms of purpose, the research is applied, and in terms of nature, it is descriptive–analytical. The required data were categorized into two main groups: (a) spatial (geographical) data and (b) non-spatial (descriptive) data.
Spatial data consisted of subdivided spatial units extracted from the urban maps of Zahedan, including the coordinates of residential blocks as well as the locations of military, law enforcement, administrative, service, and other land uses. Non-spatial (descriptive) data included information recorded in databases that describe land features and urban characteristics.
Data collection was conducted through documentary and library-based methods, utilizing studies by consulting engineers and relevant organizations, as well as extracting data from the city’s GIS maps. The analysis encompassed six spatial layers: adjacency of medical, law enforcement, and military land uses; road networks; fire stations; population density; and access to transportation routes. These indicators were prioritized using expert opinions from university specialists in urban planning, combined with the professional expertise of urban managers, through a questionnaire designed based on the Saaty scale. Data analysis was performed using the ANP model in Super Decisions 3 software and spatial analysis tools in ArcGIS 10.8.
Findings
Following the identification of influential factors and the determination of required spatial and descriptive data, the relevant criteria for evaluating urban planning in Zahedan from a passive defense perspective were developed. These criteria included six layers: access to transportation routes, population density, land-use adjacency, service coverage of hospitals, service coverage of fire stations, and service coverage of law enforcement centers.
Access to transportation routes:
The analysis indicated that the northeastern parts of Zahedan, particularly portions of District 4, exhibited more favorable conditions. In contrast, the southwestern areas of the city, including the Gavdaran neighborhood, were found to be in unfavorable conditions. These areas experience limited road network development, and the spatial distribution of emergency and medical centers is insufficient relative to population size and spatial extent.
Access to emergency response centers (medical facilities, fire stations, and law enforcement centers):
Balanced distribution and appropriate location of emergency service land uses are critically important, as effective crisis management and rescue operations cannot be achieved without careful consideration of spatial location and access routes. The evaluation of service coverage radii demonstrated that, across all three types of emergency centers, only the central areas of the city, primarily Districts 2 and 3, exhibited suitable access, while peripheral areas, particularly in the northern and southern parts of the city (Districts 1 and 5), were in highly unfavorable conditions.
Population density:
Since the demand for rescue and relief services in each area is directly related to the resident or working population, population density constitutes a key indicator. Lower and more evenly distributed population density reduces urban vulnerability to crises and enhances resilience, whereas high population density leads to increased casualties and damage during crises. A prominent characteristic of Zahedan is the high concentration of population in central districts (2, 3, and 5), which could result in severe consequences in the event of natural or human-induced disasters. In this study, population density was classified into five subcategories. The results showed that central urban areas, characterized by the highest densities, were mostly classified as unfavorable or relatively unfavorable, whereas eastern and northern areas, due to natural constraints and their distance from central facilities, exhibited lower densities and were therefore more suitable.
Land-use adjacency:
Proper land-use allocation can significantly reduce urban costs related to health, time, and efficiency. Urban land uses exert external effects on one another, which may be either positive or negative. Positive effects enhance efficiency, while negative effects reduce efficiency and decrease land-use value, leading to incompatibility among different land uses. Accordingly, land-use adjacency was systematically analyzed.
For vulnerability assessment purposes, urban land uses were categorized into two groups. The first group included vital land uses that contribute to crisis control and damage reduction, such as commercial areas, green spaces and parks, open and recreational spaces, public services, parking and transportation facilities, utilities and infrastructure, vacant land, gardens, and agricultural land. The second group comprised land uses that increase vulnerability, such as industrial and workshop-related uses.
After defining evaluation criteria and converting them into standardized and comparable scales, the relative weight and importance of each land-use category were determined in relation to the research objectives, based on expert judgment. These weighted criteria were then translated into spatial layers using geographic information system techniques. Given the unequal influence of different layers on urban vulnerability in Zahedan, the relative importance and impact of each land-use layer were determined through expert evaluation, and their final weights were calculated using the ANP model.
Following the preparation of layers, definition of classes, and assignment of weights, the resulting values were integrated using weighted overlay functions within the GIS environment to produce a final land-use adjacency valuation layer. The results indicated that most peripheral areas of Zahedan were in unfavorable conditions, particularly the southern margins of the city within District 5. In contrast, central areas and especially eastern parts of the city exhibited more favorable conditions.
Layer integration:
After weighting the raster layers and obtaining the final parameter weights, the integration stage was conducted. Based on the final weights derived from the ANP model, which demonstrated an acceptable consistency ratio, classification and raster calculation tools were applied to assign scores to each layer. Subsequently, to model the level of vulnerability of urban planning in Zahedan to crises from a passive defense perspective, spatial analysis techniques were employed. The weighted values obtained from the ANP model were assigned to each layer, and the layers were overlaid to generate the final vulnerability map of the city.
The results indicated that approximately 735 hectares were classified as unfavorable, 1,240 hectares as relatively unfavorable, 3,120 hectares as moderate, 2,187 hectares as relatively suitable, and 790 hectares as suitable. It should be noted that a significant proportion of areas classified as suitable or relatively suitable corresponded to open and vacant lands within the city.
Discussion
The present study was conducted with the aim of spatial planning based on a passive defense approach in the city of Zahedan. As the capital of Sistan and Baluchestan Province, Zahedan is a strategically important city in Iran due to its location on the border with Afghanistan and Pakistan and is highly exposed to environmental and natural hazards. Therefore, assessing urban vulnerability and implementing spatial planning strategies are essential components of urban management. Evaluating spatial planning in the city requires a systematic analysis of various effective passive defense indicators from multiple perspectives.
In this research, using the Analytic Network Process (ANP), each of the physical criteria affecting passive defense was analyzed individually. Specifically, increases in parameters such as population density or distance from emergency centers lead to higher vulnerability, whereas increases in parameters such as road access and land-use compatibility reduce vulnerability. Although each parameter affected urban vulnerability, their relative importance compared to other factors was calculated using the ANP method and analyzed with Super Decisions software.
The findings revealed that old and deteriorated urban fabric, as well as the peripheral areas of the city, particularly Districts 3 and 4 and Zibashahr, which was recently incorporated into the city were highly vulnerable due to poor-quality construction materials, small lot sizes, inappropriate land-use adjacency, inadequate access to hospitals, emergency, law enforcement, and fire services, and high population density. Furthermore, the location of these areas near mountainous regions and the lack of construction standards further exacerbated their vulnerability. In contrast, central urban areas, which consist mainly of newly constructed buildings using high-quality materials and feature open spaces, educational and administrative centers, and relatively large lot sizes, demonstrated relatively suitable to suitable conditions.
Zahedan suffers from poor spatial organization of urban elements, inappropriate land uses, inefficient road networks, dense urban fabric with degraded residential areas, high population densities, substandard distribution of urban infrastructure, and inadequate open spaces. These factors collectively contributed significantly to the city's vulnerability to any potential hazard. Consequently, urban vulnerability in Zahedan encompasses the entire urban system, thereby increasing the risk of crises.
A final synthesis indicated that previous urban plans in Zahedan have largely neglected the incorporation of passive defense principles in spatial planning. Therefore, it is crucial that key passive defense principles are considered in urban plans, particularly for sensitive, vital, and critical land uses. The vulnerability zoning provided by this research allows for targeted interventions based on the severity of vulnerability in different parts of the city. Measures such as relocating hazardous materials, applying passive defense principles in spatial planning, and related actions can significantly reduce Zahedan’s urban vulnerability.
The results of this study are consistent with findings from similar research conducted by Mohammadi Dehcheshmeh et al. in Ahvaz [Mohammadi Dehcheshmeh et al., 2017], Yazdani & Saidain in Mashhad [Yazdani & Saidain, 2017], Hataminejad et al. in Ahvaz [Hataminejad et al., 2018], and Sartiak et al. in Isfahan [Sartiak et al., 2020].
Based on the conducted studies and the passive defense indicators analyzed for Zahedan, the following practical recommendations can be proposed:
Conclusion
The urban fabric of Zahedan demonstrates suitable to fully suitable conditions in central areas regarding passive defense, whereas peripheral areas, particularly the southern half of the city, exhibit unsuitable to highly unsuitable conditions. Therefore, strengthening and reinforcing vulnerable peripheral areas should be the top priority for urban authorities to reduce urban vulnerability in Zahedan
Acknowledgments: Not applicable.
Ethical Permission: Not applicable.
Conflict of Interest: This article is derived from the first author’s doctoral dissertation, under the supervision of the second author and with consultation from the third author at Zahedan Islamic Azad University.
Authors’ Contributions: Moradgholi A (first author), Main Researcher/Discussion Writer (50%); Anvari MR (second author), Methodologist (25%); Miri SGh (third author), Methodologist (25%)
Funding: This research was conducted using the authors’ personal resources.
The contemporary era is characterized by urban vulnerability [Mohammadi Dehcheshmeh & Hidarynia, 2015]. Over recent decades, the excessive concentration of population in urban centers and the extensive transformations within them have turned cities into hazardous environments [Huseini Amini et al., 2019]. In general, urban life exposes citizens to a wide range of risks and crises. These crises potentially threaten urban safety and security at local, urban, and national levels [Jozi Khamselooei & Javaheran, 2013]. Although such crises may originate from various sources, they can broadly be classified into crises resulting from shortages of basic human needs; crises arising from political, environmental, social, and economic conditions; and, finally, crises occurring due to natural or human-induced causes.
The distinction among these crises lies in the scale and depth of their impacts, as the damages and casualties they generate may be extremely severe [Fredro, 2009]. In fact, the dysfunction of urban centers and vital facilities, as the core of any system, leads to disruptions in the balance of urban systems and gives rise to multiple challenges in the survival of human communities. This situation seriously undermines control and continuity due to the failure of key decision-making centers and the destruction of essential societal requirements within space, thereby triggering critical crises [Salari Sardari & Kiani, 2018]. Accordingly, adopting measures and strategies aimed at reducing urban vulnerability to hazards and threats is essential, which has intensified attention toward the concept of passive defense and the application of its principles [Yazdani, 2017; Siami et al., 2014]. Consequently, the issue of ensuring citizen security and safeguarding all urban facilities and infrastructures through intelligent and well-planned approaches has paved the way for the emergence of the concept of urban passive defense [Huseini Amini et al., 2019].
In recent years, the issue of security and the necessity of passive defense have become highly applicable in urban planning [Bornafar & Afradi, 2014]. The spatial organization of cities, which has undergone transformation throughout historical urban development, has imposed diverse functions on the order and public security of the urban environment [Anvari & Nazmi Feyzabadi, 2017]. Observing passive defense requirements is therefore considered a fundamental principle for sustainable and resilient development of urban facilities and infrastructures, as well as for the protection of citizens’ lives and property [Kamran & Hosaini Amini, 2012]. Passive defense in urban areas is a subject of heightened importance from economic, political, social, and cultural perspectives [Tang & Wen, 2009]. Hence, the attention of managers and authorities to passive defense plans provides the necessary groundwork for advancing this modern approach toward enhancing the concept of urban safety and security [Brandon, 2011: 14].
Within urban planning processes, land-use planning plays a crucial role in reducing urban vulnerability to crises in general, and to military threats in particular [Amini et al., 2010]. Despite urban development, the likelihood of cities’ vulnerability to human-induced crises such as bombings, urban unrest, and terrorist activities has increased in recent decades. Accordingly, urban managers and planners have increasingly employed modern planning and urban design approaches, including passive defense, to structure the physical form of cities, urban spatial planning, and the arrangement of diverse land uses based on contemporary strategic frameworks [Taghvaei & Jovzi Khameslouei, 2012].
Numerous studies have examined various dimensions of physical planning through the lens of passive defense, addressing issues such as the application of passive defense in urban housing planning and urban safety, urban transportation systems, the creation of safe residential neighborhoods, urban security pathology, and the vulnerability of urban spaces with an emphasis on physical, economic, and social factors. Based on the findings of previous research, the novelty of the present study lies in integrating geographical criteria and indicators with passive defense principles and proposing a new conceptual framework for assessing physical vulnerability based on threat-oriented criteria.
In Iranian cities, passive defense has largely been neglected, rendering urban areas highly vulnerable to crises. In reality, passive defense holds no significant position within Iran’s urban planning system, a situation that is extremely perilous for a country exposed to various threats. Zahedan, the largest border city in southeastern Iran and the capital of Sistan and Baluchestan Province, is located near the borders with Afghanistan and Pakistan [Rousta et al., 2018]. Rapid population growth, deteriorated physical fabric in many parts of the city, and the use of low-durability construction materials have resulted in physical–spatial manifestations that, in several respects, fail to comply with urban planning principles and standards.
Moreover, unregulated urban expansion, the presence of slums, informal settlements, and marginalization, along with the lack of infrastructure and urban services in these areas, have intensified urban vulnerability. Environmental hazards, such as exposure to dust storms, the presence of two major fault lines, and location within flood-prone zones, further highlight the necessity of examining passive defense in this city. Additionally, Zahedan annually attracts a large influx of migrants from cities such as Zabol and Zahak, as well as other parts of the province, seeking employment and settlement. These conditions underscore the critical need to address passive defense issues in Zahedan, as any crisis occurring in this region could have extensive repercussions for urban and even national management, imposing substantial economic and social losses on both citizens and authorities.
Therefore, physical planning with a passive defense approach represents the only viable means of safeguarding this dense area with its social, economic, cultural, political, and military potentials, thereby clearly demonstrating the significance of the present research. Accordingly, studying passive defense to mitigate the adverse impacts of natural and human-induced crises, particularly from a physical perspective is essential and should begin with priority areas. Hence, the primary objective of this study is to develop physical planning strategies based on a passive defense approach in the city of Zahedan.
Methodology
This applied study adopted an analytical approach and was conducted in 2021, focusing on the city of Zahedan in Sistan and Baluchestan Province. In terms of purpose, the research is applied, and in terms of nature, it is descriptive–analytical. The required data were categorized into two main groups: (a) spatial (geographical) data and (b) non-spatial (descriptive) data.
Spatial data consisted of subdivided spatial units extracted from the urban maps of Zahedan, including the coordinates of residential blocks as well as the locations of military, law enforcement, administrative, service, and other land uses. Non-spatial (descriptive) data included information recorded in databases that describe land features and urban characteristics.
Data collection was conducted through documentary and library-based methods, utilizing studies by consulting engineers and relevant organizations, as well as extracting data from the city’s GIS maps. The analysis encompassed six spatial layers: adjacency of medical, law enforcement, and military land uses; road networks; fire stations; population density; and access to transportation routes. These indicators were prioritized using expert opinions from university specialists in urban planning, combined with the professional expertise of urban managers, through a questionnaire designed based on the Saaty scale. Data analysis was performed using the ANP model in Super Decisions 3 software and spatial analysis tools in ArcGIS 10.8.
Findings
Following the identification of influential factors and the determination of required spatial and descriptive data, the relevant criteria for evaluating urban planning in Zahedan from a passive defense perspective were developed. These criteria included six layers: access to transportation routes, population density, land-use adjacency, service coverage of hospitals, service coverage of fire stations, and service coverage of law enforcement centers.
Access to transportation routes:
The analysis indicated that the northeastern parts of Zahedan, particularly portions of District 4, exhibited more favorable conditions. In contrast, the southwestern areas of the city, including the Gavdaran neighborhood, were found to be in unfavorable conditions. These areas experience limited road network development, and the spatial distribution of emergency and medical centers is insufficient relative to population size and spatial extent.
Access to emergency response centers (medical facilities, fire stations, and law enforcement centers):
Balanced distribution and appropriate location of emergency service land uses are critically important, as effective crisis management and rescue operations cannot be achieved without careful consideration of spatial location and access routes. The evaluation of service coverage radii demonstrated that, across all three types of emergency centers, only the central areas of the city, primarily Districts 2 and 3, exhibited suitable access, while peripheral areas, particularly in the northern and southern parts of the city (Districts 1 and 5), were in highly unfavorable conditions.
Population density:
Since the demand for rescue and relief services in each area is directly related to the resident or working population, population density constitutes a key indicator. Lower and more evenly distributed population density reduces urban vulnerability to crises and enhances resilience, whereas high population density leads to increased casualties and damage during crises. A prominent characteristic of Zahedan is the high concentration of population in central districts (2, 3, and 5), which could result in severe consequences in the event of natural or human-induced disasters. In this study, population density was classified into five subcategories. The results showed that central urban areas, characterized by the highest densities, were mostly classified as unfavorable or relatively unfavorable, whereas eastern and northern areas, due to natural constraints and their distance from central facilities, exhibited lower densities and were therefore more suitable.
Land-use adjacency:
Proper land-use allocation can significantly reduce urban costs related to health, time, and efficiency. Urban land uses exert external effects on one another, which may be either positive or negative. Positive effects enhance efficiency, while negative effects reduce efficiency and decrease land-use value, leading to incompatibility among different land uses. Accordingly, land-use adjacency was systematically analyzed.
For vulnerability assessment purposes, urban land uses were categorized into two groups. The first group included vital land uses that contribute to crisis control and damage reduction, such as commercial areas, green spaces and parks, open and recreational spaces, public services, parking and transportation facilities, utilities and infrastructure, vacant land, gardens, and agricultural land. The second group comprised land uses that increase vulnerability, such as industrial and workshop-related uses.
After defining evaluation criteria and converting them into standardized and comparable scales, the relative weight and importance of each land-use category were determined in relation to the research objectives, based on expert judgment. These weighted criteria were then translated into spatial layers using geographic information system techniques. Given the unequal influence of different layers on urban vulnerability in Zahedan, the relative importance and impact of each land-use layer were determined through expert evaluation, and their final weights were calculated using the ANP model.
Following the preparation of layers, definition of classes, and assignment of weights, the resulting values were integrated using weighted overlay functions within the GIS environment to produce a final land-use adjacency valuation layer. The results indicated that most peripheral areas of Zahedan were in unfavorable conditions, particularly the southern margins of the city within District 5. In contrast, central areas and especially eastern parts of the city exhibited more favorable conditions.
Layer integration:
After weighting the raster layers and obtaining the final parameter weights, the integration stage was conducted. Based on the final weights derived from the ANP model, which demonstrated an acceptable consistency ratio, classification and raster calculation tools were applied to assign scores to each layer. Subsequently, to model the level of vulnerability of urban planning in Zahedan to crises from a passive defense perspective, spatial analysis techniques were employed. The weighted values obtained from the ANP model were assigned to each layer, and the layers were overlaid to generate the final vulnerability map of the city.
The results indicated that approximately 735 hectares were classified as unfavorable, 1,240 hectares as relatively unfavorable, 3,120 hectares as moderate, 2,187 hectares as relatively suitable, and 790 hectares as suitable. It should be noted that a significant proportion of areas classified as suitable or relatively suitable corresponded to open and vacant lands within the city.
Discussion
The present study was conducted with the aim of spatial planning based on a passive defense approach in the city of Zahedan. As the capital of Sistan and Baluchestan Province, Zahedan is a strategically important city in Iran due to its location on the border with Afghanistan and Pakistan and is highly exposed to environmental and natural hazards. Therefore, assessing urban vulnerability and implementing spatial planning strategies are essential components of urban management. Evaluating spatial planning in the city requires a systematic analysis of various effective passive defense indicators from multiple perspectives.
In this research, using the Analytic Network Process (ANP), each of the physical criteria affecting passive defense was analyzed individually. Specifically, increases in parameters such as population density or distance from emergency centers lead to higher vulnerability, whereas increases in parameters such as road access and land-use compatibility reduce vulnerability. Although each parameter affected urban vulnerability, their relative importance compared to other factors was calculated using the ANP method and analyzed with Super Decisions software.
The findings revealed that old and deteriorated urban fabric, as well as the peripheral areas of the city, particularly Districts 3 and 4 and Zibashahr, which was recently incorporated into the city were highly vulnerable due to poor-quality construction materials, small lot sizes, inappropriate land-use adjacency, inadequate access to hospitals, emergency, law enforcement, and fire services, and high population density. Furthermore, the location of these areas near mountainous regions and the lack of construction standards further exacerbated their vulnerability. In contrast, central urban areas, which consist mainly of newly constructed buildings using high-quality materials and feature open spaces, educational and administrative centers, and relatively large lot sizes, demonstrated relatively suitable to suitable conditions.
Zahedan suffers from poor spatial organization of urban elements, inappropriate land uses, inefficient road networks, dense urban fabric with degraded residential areas, high population densities, substandard distribution of urban infrastructure, and inadequate open spaces. These factors collectively contributed significantly to the city's vulnerability to any potential hazard. Consequently, urban vulnerability in Zahedan encompasses the entire urban system, thereby increasing the risk of crises.
A final synthesis indicated that previous urban plans in Zahedan have largely neglected the incorporation of passive defense principles in spatial planning. Therefore, it is crucial that key passive defense principles are considered in urban plans, particularly for sensitive, vital, and critical land uses. The vulnerability zoning provided by this research allows for targeted interventions based on the severity of vulnerability in different parts of the city. Measures such as relocating hazardous materials, applying passive defense principles in spatial planning, and related actions can significantly reduce Zahedan’s urban vulnerability.
The results of this study are consistent with findings from similar research conducted by Mohammadi Dehcheshmeh et al. in Ahvaz [Mohammadi Dehcheshmeh et al., 2017], Yazdani & Saidain in Mashhad [Yazdani & Saidain, 2017], Hataminejad et al. in Ahvaz [Hataminejad et al., 2018], and Sartiak et al. in Isfahan [Sartiak et al., 2020].
Based on the conducted studies and the passive defense indicators analyzed for Zahedan, the following practical recommendations can be proposed:
- Designing urban open spaces to maximize usability during crises, particularly in peripheral are:as char:acterized by dense residential land use and irregular road patterns.
- Widening and correcting narrow street networks to facilitate the movement of fire and emergency vehicles.
- Strategic placement of emergency services based on service radius and population coverage.
- Preparing urban managers for uninterrupted emergency service delivery.
- Increasing the number and improving the quality of medical and emergency response centers in the five districts of Zahedan to enhance crisis readiness.
- Relocating hazardous facilities from residential areas or proximity to critical centers, with fuel storage tanks being a priority due to their potential risk near populated areas.
- Utilizing the advanced capabilities of GIS in urban planning and passive defense, especially for optimal site selection of urban facilities such as shelters and safe centers, to identify the most suitable land-use allocations in Zahedan.
Conclusion
The urban fabric of Zahedan demonstrates suitable to fully suitable conditions in central areas regarding passive defense, whereas peripheral areas, particularly the southern half of the city, exhibit unsuitable to highly unsuitable conditions. Therefore, strengthening and reinforcing vulnerable peripheral areas should be the top priority for urban authorities to reduce urban vulnerability in Zahedan
Acknowledgments: Not applicable.
Ethical Permission: Not applicable.
Conflict of Interest: This article is derived from the first author’s doctoral dissertation, under the supervision of the second author and with consultation from the third author at Zahedan Islamic Azad University.
Authors’ Contributions: Moradgholi A (first author), Main Researcher/Discussion Writer (50%); Anvari MR (second author), Methodologist (25%); Miri SGh (third author), Methodologist (25%)
Funding: This research was conducted using the authors’ personal resources.
Keywords:
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